Glossary of Human Performance Terms
Definitions Collected and Organized
By:
Jonathon
Janz
MS, CSCS, USAW Level I
1 RM – One Rep Maximum
The maximum amount of weight a subject can lift for a particular exercise (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
A-Band
The area located in the center of the sarcomere containing both actin and myosin (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Abduct, Abduction
To move
away from the midline of the body
(Marieb, 1998)
Abilities
Stable characteristics or traits, genetically defined and unmodifiable by practice or experience, that underlie certain skilled performances (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Absolute Constant Error ( |CE| )
The absolute value of CE for each subject; a measure of amount of bias without respect to direction (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Absolute Error (AE)
The average absolute deviation of a set of scores from a target value; a measure of overall error (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Absolute Frequency of Knowledge of Results
The absolute number of KRs given in a sequence of trials (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Absolute Retention
A measure of retention based on the level of performance on the retention test (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Absolute Strength
Maximum
involuntary strength (Siff, 2003)
Acceleration
Change in velocity per unit time (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Acceleration of Specific Adaptation
Idea that specific adaptation should be accelerated by advancing the stage when maximum sports proficiency is expected to be produced by the current training regime (Siff, 2003)
Acceleration Strength
The ability over time to quickly achieve maximal external force while developing muscle tension isometrically or at the beginning of a dynamic action (Siff, 2003)
Accelerated Powermetrics
The use of elastic bands or other means to provide added resistance during the eccentric and/or concentric phases of a movement (Siff, 2003)
Acclimation
Short-term
changes that
occur within the body which lessen the physiological strain that
develops in
response to changes in climate (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Acclimatization
Certain
physiological
adjustments brought forth through continued exposure to a different
climate
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Accommodating
Resistance
The
presence of a
counterforce which controls the speed of contraction during isokinetic
testing (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Accumulated
Feedback
Information
presented
after a series of movements that represents a summary of those
performances
(Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Acetyl
Coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA)
The
compound that forms
the common entry point into the Krebs cycle for the oxidation of
carbohydrate and
fat (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Acetylcholine
(ACh)
A
chemical found in the
body which is involved in several important physiological functions
such as
nerve impulse transmission from one nerve fiber to another across a
synapse
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Achievement Motivation
Relates to the athlete’s wish to engage in competition or social comparison (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Acidosis
A
condition of low alkali reserve (bicarbonate) in the blood and other
body
fluids, which is sometimes associated with an increase in H-ion
concentration
(acid) and a decrease in blood pH below normal levels (Foss &
Keteyian,
1998)
Actin
A
muscle protein involved in contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Action-Centered Interference
A view of attention that localizes interference effects at the response-selection stage (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Action Potential
Electrical
activity developed in a muscle or nerve cell during depolarization
(activity)
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Active Stabilizers
See
Stabilizers (Siff, 2003)
Active Transport
The movement
of substances against their concentration gradients by utilizing
metabolic
energy (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Actomyosin
A protein
complex formed from actin and myosin when myosin cross-bridges bond
chemically
with actin filaments (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Acute Muscle Soreness
Pain
occurring during or immediately following performance of high-intensity
exercise; associated with inadequate flow of blood (Foss &
Keteyian, 1998)
Acute Response
A physiological response to a single bout of exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Adams ’s
Theory
A
closed-loop theory of motor
learning proposed by
Adaptive Reconstruction
The phenomenon in which the body adapts to stress, such as that imposed by training loads; similar to supercompensation (Siff, 2003)
Adaptogens
Natural substances used to facilitate adaptation to stress (Siff, 2003)
Adduct, Adduction
To
move toward the midline of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Adenine
One of
the two major purines
found in both RNA and DNA; also
used as an aromatic base that when linked to ribose forms adenosine,
the
foundation for ATP, ADP, and AMP (Foss & Keteyian, 1998),
(Marieb, 1998)
Adenohypophysis
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland which secretes six major hormones (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Adenosine
The
molecular foundation for ATP, ADP, and AMP, consisting of a five-carbon
sugar
(ribose) attached to an aromatic base (adenine) (Foss &
Keteyian, 1998)
Adenosine Diphosphate
(ADP)
An
organic molecule that forms ATP when combined with inorganic phosphate
(Pi)
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)
An
organic molecule formed by the hydrolysis of the two phosphate groups
found in
Adenosine Triphophate
(ATP) (Baechle &
Earle, 2000)
Adenosine Triphosphatase
(ATPase)
An enzyme that splits the last phosphate group off ATP, releasing a large amount of energy and reducing the ATP to ADP and P (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)
An organic
molecule formed with the energy released from flood and stored in all
body
cells, particularly the muscles; the breakdown of ATP provides the
cells with
their sole source of energy for work (Foss & Keteyian, 1998),
(Marieb,
1998)
Adipocyte
A
fat cell; a cell that provides the storage of fat (Foss
& Keteyian, 1998)
Adipose Tissue
Fat
tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Adjacent-Trial Effect
With intertrial correlation matrices, the tendency for the correlations between adjacent trials to increase with practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Adolescence
The period between childhood and adulthood (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Adrenal Cortex
The outer
part of the adrenal gland that secretes over forty different hormones
known as
steroids (categorized as mineralocorticordoids,
glucocorticoids, and
androgens) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Adrenal Medulla
The inner
part of the adrenal gland that serves as an extension of the
sympathetic
nervous system; secretes epinephrine and norephinephrine
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH or Corticotropin)
An andrenohypophysis
hormone that stimulates the production
and release of glucocorticoid
hormone from the
adrenal cortex (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Aerobic Endurance
The
amount of time a muscle can continue to remain active using aerobic
pathways
(Marieb, 1998)
Aerobic Respiration (Aerobic Metabolism)
Respiration
in which oxygen is consumed and glucose is completely broken down;
water,
carbon dioxide, and large amounts of ATP are the final products
(Marieb, 1998)
Aerobic Power
The
maximal rate at which a person can consume oxygen during the
performance of a
maximum effort, exhaustive exercise; an indicator of cardiovascular
fitness
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Aerobic System
Denotes the entire series of biochemical reactions and pathways where ATP can be synthesized from food only in the presence of oxygen; includes aerobic glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Afferent
Carrying to or toward a center (Marieb, 1998)
Afferent
(Sensory) Nerve
A nerve that contains the processes of sensory neurons and carries nerve impulses to the central nervous system (Marieb, 1998)
Afferent
(Sensory)
Neuron
A nerve cell that carries impulses toward the central nervous system; initiates impulses following receptor stimulation (Marieb, 1998)
Agonist
A muscle that is primarily responsible for effecting a specific movement; a prime mover (Marieb, 1998)
Air Plethysmography
A procedure for assessing body composition by using air displacement to measure body volume, allowing the calculation of body density (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Alactacid Oxygen Debt
A portion
of the recovery oxygen that is used to resynthesize and restore ATP and
phosphocreatine (PC) in muscle post exercise; the rapid recovery phase
(Foss
& Keteyian, 1998)
Aldosterone
A mineralocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates sodium ion reabsorption (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Alkali Reserve
The
amount of bicarbonate (base) available in the body for buffering acid
(Foss
& Keteyian, 1998)
Alkaline
A
base; opposite of acid (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Alkalosis
A state
of abnormally low hydrogen ion (acid) concentration in the
extracellular fluid
(Marieb, 1998)
All or None Law
A
stimulated muscle or nerve fiber contracts or propagates an impulse
either
completely or not at all; once activated, a maximal response occurs (no
gradation of action) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Allodynamic
See
Auxotonic
(Siff, 2003)
Allosteric Binding Site
A receptor at which substances other than hormones can enhance or reduce the cellular response to the primary hormone (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Alpha (a) Helix
The most
common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins
(Marieb,
1998)
Alpha-Gamma (a-g) Coactivation
The firing of both alpha and gamma motor neurons to the same muscle at nearly the same time producing voluntary contraction (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Alpha (a) Motor Neuron
A type of efferent nerve cell that innervates extrafusal muscle fibers; large efferent neurons responsible for innervation of the extrafusal fibers of the skeletal musculature (Foss & Keteyian, 1998) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Alternating Sets
Training
involving alternating sets
of exercises for different regions of the body to achieve specific
training
goals (Siff, 2003)
Alveolar-Capillary Membrane
The thin
layer of tissue dividing the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
where gas
exchange occurs in the lungs (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Alveolar (acinar) Gland
A
gland containing secretory cells that form small, flask-like sacs
(Marieb,
1998)
Alveolar Pressure
The
pressure inside the alveoli when the glottis is open and no air is
flowing into
our out of the lungs (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR)
An index of respiratory efficiency; a measurement of the volume of air wasted and flow of fresh gases in and out of the alveoli (Marieb, 1998)
Alveolus
A
single, microscopic air sac in the lung (Marieb, 1998)
Ambient
The
surrounding environment (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Amino Acid Deamination
Metabolic
process where the
nitrogen containing amino radical (NH2) is removed from the amino acid
molecule
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Amino Acid
An
organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. It is the building block
of protein (Marieb,
1998)
Amenorrhea
Stoppage
of menstrual cycles; not uncommon in female athletes practicing
rigorous
endurance training or severely restricting their body weight; often
preceded by
irregular menses (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Amortization
In plyometrics, the phase occurring when the kinetic energy from a prior movement produces a powerful myotatic stretch reflex which leads to eccentric muscle action accompanied by explosive isometric contraction and stretching of the series elastic component of the muscle complex (Siff, 2003)
Ammonia (NH3)
Common waste product of protein breakdown in the body; a colorless volatile gas, very soluable in water and capable of forming a weak base; a protein acceptor (Marieb, 1998)
Amphiarthrosis
A slightly movable joint (Marieb, 1998)
Amphetamine
A synthetically structured drug closely related to epinephrine; it produces stimulation of the central nervous system (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid
A compound that promotes tissue-building and male-like bodily characteristics; it is conducive to the constructive (building up) process of metabolism (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Anabolism (Anabolic)
Energy-requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances; protein building (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Anaerobic
In the absence of oxygen; not requiring oxygen (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Anaerobic Glycolysis
The incomplete chemical breakdown of carbohydrate; the anaerobic reactions in this breakdown release energy for the manufacture of ATP as they produce lactic acid (anaerobic glycolysis is known as the lactic acid system); energy-yielding conversion of glucose to lactic acid in various tissues, notably muscle, when sufficient oxygen is not available (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Anaerobic Power
The development of maximal or peak power during exertion; measured as work (force in kg x distance in meters) expressed per unit of time (min) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Anaerobic Threshold
That intensity of work load or oxygen consumption at which anaerobic metabolism is accelerated; the point at which muscle metabolism converts to anaerobic glycolysis (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Analytical-Synthetic Method
The qualities of performance should be developed separately with the appropriate means and then integrated into the special exercises; the breaking down of performance into its respective parts for training purposes, then assembling the components into an integrated whole (Siff, 2003)
Anatomical Dead Space (Vd)
That volume of fresh air that remains in the respiratory passages (nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, bronchi, and bronchioles) and does not participate in gaseous exchange (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Anatomical Position
The body is erect, the arms are down at the sides, and the palms face forward (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Anatomy
Encompasses the study of components that make up the musculoskeletal “machine” (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Anemia
Reduced oxygen-carrying ability of blood resulting from too few erythrocytes or abnormal hemoglobin (Marieb, 1998)
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)
An enzyme that converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Angle of Pennation
The angle between the muscle
fibers and an
imaginary line between the muscle’s origin and insertion
(Baechle & Earle,
2000)
Angular Displacement
The angle through which an object rotates (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Angular Kinetics
The branch of mechanics that deals with the causes of rotations (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Angular Momentum
The quantity of angular motion determined by the product of the object’s angular velocity and its moment of inertia (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Angular
Power
The time rate of change of angular work determined by the product of the torque and the angular velocity (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Angular Velocity
An object’s rotational speed, measured in radians per second (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Angular Work
The product of torque applied to an object and the angular distance over which the torque is applied (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Annulospiral Nerve
Sensory (afferent) nerve from central region of muscle spindle; sends impulses to CNS with whole muscle stretch or intrafusal fiber shortening (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Anorexia Nervosa
A clinical disorder of eating associated with loss of appetite, distorted body image, and an intense fear of fatness or weight gain (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Antagonist
Muscle that reverses, opposes, the action of another muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Anthropometry
The measurement of the size and proportions of the human body (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Antidiuretic
Hormone
(ADH, also called Vasopressin)
A hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland that functions mainly to promote water reabsorption from the collecting tubules of the kidney (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Antioxidants
Substances that provide elections that reduce free radicals associated with other molecules (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Anti-Phase
A coordination pattern in which two movement components oscillate in 180º relative phase (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Anxiety
A subjective experience of apprehension and uncertainty accompanied by elevated autonomic
and voluntary neural outflow and increased endocrine activity (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Aortic Valve
Semilunar valve between the left ventricle and the aorta; prevents the backflow from the aorta into the ventricles during ventricular relaxation (diastole) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Apocrine Gland
The less numerous type of sweat gland; produces a secretion containing water, salts, proteins, and fatty acids (Marieb, 1998)
Apoenzyme
The protein portion of an enzyme (Marieb, 1998)
Aponeurosis
Fibrous or membranous sheet connecting a muscle and the part it moves (Marieb, 1998)
Appendicular
Relating to the limbs; one of the two major divisions of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Aqueous
Pertaining to water (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Arousal
The intensity dimension of behavior and physiology; an internal state of alertness or excitement (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Arrhythmia
Irregular heart rhythm caused by defects in the intrinsic conduction system (Marieb, 1998)
Arterial Mixed Venous Oxygen
Difference (a-VO2 diff)
The difference
between the oxygen content of arterial and mixed venous blood (Foss
&
Keteyian, 1998)
Arteries
Blood vessels that conduct blood away from the heart and into the circulation (Marieb, 1998)
Arteriole
A minute artery (Marieb, 1998)
Arteriosclerosis
Any of a number of proliferative and degenerative changes in the arteries leading to their decreased elasticity (Marieb, 1998)
Arthritis
Inflammation of the joints (Marieb, 1998)
Arthroscopic surgery
Procedure enabling a surgeon to repair the interior of a joint through a small incision (Marieb, 1998)
Articular Capsule
Double-layered capsule composed of an outer fibrous capsule lined by synovial membrane; encloses the joint cavity of a synovial joint (Marieb, 1998)
Articular Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage covering bone ends at movable joints (Marieb, 1998)
Articulation
The junction of two or more bones (Marieb, 1998)
Assistant Mover
Muscles that play a secondary role to that of a prime mover in a particular action (Siff, 2003)
Association
A strategy in which an athlete will carefully monitor their performance and perceived physiological state while engaged in activity (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Associative Phase
The second of three phases of learning proposed by Fitts, in which learners establish motor patterns (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Associative System
A system in which operations follow this law: A*(B*C) = (A*B)*C (Siff, 2003)
Ataxia
Disruption of muscle coordination resulting in inaccurate movements (Marieb, 1998)
Atherosclerosis
A disease of the arteries in which lipid (fat) material and cholesterol accumulate on the inside walls of the arteries; changes in the walls of large arteries consisting of lipid deposits on the artery walls; the early stage of arteriosclerosis (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Athlete’s Heart
A nonpathological enlarged heart, often found in endurance athletes, that results primarily from left ventricular hypertrophy in response to training (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
ATP
See
Adenosine Triphosphate
ATPase
An enzyme that facilitates the breakdown of ATP (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
ATP-PC System
An anaerobic energy system in which ATP is manufactured when phosphocreatine (PC) is broken down; this system represents the most rapidly available source of ATP for use by muscle; activities performed at maximum intensity for a period of 10 seconds or less derive energy (ATP) from this system (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Atrioventricular (AV) Bundle
Part of the heart conduction system that conducts the impulse to the ventricles (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Atrioventricular (AV) Node
Part of the heart conduction system that delays the impulse slightly before it passes into the ventricles (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves
Prevent the flow of blood from the ventricles back into the atria during ventricular contraction (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Atria
Two superior chambers of the heart; function primarily as blood reservoirs, delivering blood into the right and left ventricles (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Atrophy
A reduction in the cross-sectional area of muscle, muscle fibers, or other tissues due to injury, disuse, disease, immobilization, or similar factors; reduction in size or wasting away of an organ or cell resulting from disease or lack of use (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Attention
The athlete’s
ability to focus; the processing of
those environmental cues that come to awareness; a concept that
describes
limitations in the processing of information (Baechle & Earle,
2000) (Schmidt & Lee,
1999)
Augmented
Feedback
Feedback that is added to the feedback typically received in the task (also called extrinsic feedback) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Autogenic Inhibition
Reflex inhibition of a motor neuron in response to excessive tension in the muscle fibers it supplies, as monitored by the Golgi tendon organs (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Autogenic Training
An athlete visualizes him or herself in action, feeling all of the muscular tensions and movements, as well as the physiological and emotional changes actually occurring in competition; Refers to shifting autonomic neural processes from sympathetic to parasympathetic dominance (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Siff, 2003)
Automatic
Processing
Information processing that is relatively fast, that is done in parallel with other processes, and that requires minimal effort (compare with controlled processing ) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)
A self-controlled system that helps to control activities such as those involving movement and secretion by the visceral organs, urinary output, body temperature, heart rate, adrenal secretion, and blood pressure; efferent division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands; also called the involuntary or visceral motor system (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Autonomous Phase
The
third of three phases of
learned proposed by Fitts,
in which learners have
greatly reduced the attention demands of the task (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
Autoregulation
Local control of blood distribution (through vasodilation) in response to a tissue’s changing needs (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Auxotonic
Muscle action involving changes in muscle tension and length (Siff, 2003)
Average Knowledge of Results
A
type of summary knowledge of
results method that presents the results of two or more trials as a
statistical
average (Schmidt &
Lee, 1999)
Average Velocity
The speed of a movement, or the movement distance divided by the movement time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Axial
Relating to the head, neck, and trunk; one of the two major divisions of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Axon
A nerve fiber; neuron process that carries impulses away from the nerve cell body; efferent process; the conduction portion of a nerve cell (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Axon Hillock
A
part of the neuron, between the
cell body and the axon, that controls traffic down the axon through
summation
of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (Wilmore
& Costill, 2004)
Axon Terminal
One of numerous branched endings of an axon; also known as a terminal fibril (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Balance
The ability of an individual to assume and maintain a stable position (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Ballistic
Bursts of muscular activity followed by phases of relaxation during which the motion continues due to stored limb momentum (Siff, 2003)
Ballistic
Stretching
Imposes passive momentum to exceed static range of motion on the relaxed or contracted muscle complex; may be done slowly or rapidly (Siff, 2003)
Bandwidth
Knowledge of
Results
Tolerance limits on errors that define when to provide qualitative or quantitative knowledge of results (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Baroreceptor
Receptors primarily located in the walls of the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that are sensitive to transluminal stretch; when activated, they increase the afferent firing rate to the cardiorespiratory center of the medulla; pressoreceptor that is stimulated by pressure changes (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Rate at which energy is expended (heat produced) by the body per unit time under controlled (basal) conditions (12 hours after a meal at rest) (Marieb, 1998)
Basal Ganglia (Nuclei)
Subcortical portion of the brain that, along with the thalamus, provides an information loop back to the premotor cortex to assist in the selection and initiation of chosen movements; gray matter areas located deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Base
A substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor (Marieb, 1998)
Beta-Blockers (b-Blockers)
A class of drugs that block transmission of neural impulses from the sympathetic nervous system, proposed to have Ergogenic properties (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Beta-Cells (b-Cells)
Cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas that secrete insulin (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Beta-Oxidation (b-Oxidation)
The series of reactions by which fat is broken down from long carbon chains to two carbon units in preparation for entry into the Krebs Cycle (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Biaxial
Joint
Joints that allow movement about two perpendicular axes; the ankle and wrist are examples (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bicarbonate Ion (HCO3-)
A by-product of the dissociation (ionizing) of carbonic acid (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Bicarbonate Loading
Ingesting biocarbonate to elevate blood pH with hopes of delaying fatigue by increasing the capacity to buffer acids (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Biceps
Two-headed, especially applied to certain muscles (Marieb, 1998)
Bicuspid Valve
Prevent the flow of blood from the ventricles back into the atria during ventricular contraction; also known as the mitral valve (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bilateral
Deficit
The force produced with bilateral contractions is usually less that the sum of the forces produced individually by the left and right limbs (Siff, 2003)
Binge Eating Disorder
An eating disorder in which a person will ingest a large amount of food without purging (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bioelectric Impedance
A procedure for assessing body composition in which an electrical current is passed through the body; the resistance to current flow through the tissues reflects the relative amount of fat present (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Bioenergetics
The study of energy transformation in living organisms (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Biofeedback
Training that provides an awareness of visceral activities; enables an element of voluntary control over autonomic body functions (Marieb, 1998)
Biogenic Amines
Class of neurotransmitters, including catecholamines and indolamines (Marieb, 1998)
Biological Age
Age measured in terms of skeletal age, somatic maturity, or sexual maturation (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Biologically Active Substances
See Adaptogens (Siff, 2003)
Biomechanics
Study of the mechanisms through which the components of the anatomy interact to create movement (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Biomechanical
Efficiency
Relates to the genetic factors such as the leverage characteristics of the body, the relative strengths of the different muscle groups controlling the movement of each limb, and the neuromuscular efficiency which orchestrates all movement patterns of the body (Siff, 2003)
Biopsy
The removal and examination of tissue from the living body (Marieb, 1998).
Bit
The amount of information required to reduce the original amount of uncertainty by half (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Black Globe Thermometer
An ordinary thermometer placed in a black globe; the black bulb temperature measures radiant energy or solar radiation and is one of three temperatures used to compute the WBGT index (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Blocked
Practice
A practice sequence in which all of the trials on one tasks are done together, uninterrupted by practice on any of the other tasks; low contextual interference (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Blood Doping
The
removal and subsequent reinfusion
of blood,
undertaken to temporarily increase oxygen-carrying red blood cells
(Foss &
Keteyian, 1998)
Blood Glucose
Simple
form of sugar (carbohydrate) circulating in blood; levels are regulated
mainly
through the glycogen stored in the liver (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Blood Lipids
Blood-borne
fats,
such as triglycerides and cholesterol (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Blood Pressure
The force per unit area exerted by the blood against the inside walls of an artery; the driving force that moves blood through the circulatory system; differences in blood pressure between different areas of the circulation provide the driving force for blood circulation (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Body
Composition
The chemical composition of the body (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Body
Density
Body weight divided by body volume (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Body
Mass Index (BMI)
The preferred body compostion assessment for obese individuals, as skinfold assessment becomes inaccurate because of the size of the skinfold and the lack of standardized formulas for obese adults; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height squared in meters (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bone
Matrix
Proteins, including collagen molecules, which form a meshwork between bone cells (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bone
Mineral Density
The quantity of mineral deposited in a given area of bone (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bone
Modeling
The process initiated by mechanical loading in which osteoblasts migrate to the bone surface and produce the bone matrix (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bone Tissue
A
connective tissue that forms the bony skeleton (Marieb, 1998)
Bone Remodeling
Process Involving bone formation and destruction in response to hormonal and mechanical factors (Marieb, 1998)
Bone Resorption
The
removal of osseous tissue; part of the continuous bone remodeling
process
(Marieb, 1998)
Borg Rate of Perceived Exertion Scale (Borg RPE scale)
A numerical scale for rating perceived exertion (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Boyle’s Law
The volume occupied by a gas (at constant temperature) is reduced or expanded in direct proportion to the pressure placed around it; very important to underwater diving; states that when the temperature is constant, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume (Foss & Keteyian 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Bracketing Technique
An athlete performs the sport movement with lighter-than-normal and heavier-than-normal implements; it is another form of acceleration training (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bradycardia
A heart rate less than 60 beats per minute (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Branched-Chain Amino Acid
Major amino acids oxidized in skeletal muscle; include leucine, isoleucine, valine, and sometimes alanine, aspartate, and glutamate (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Brief Maximal Tension Method
Method that develops the ability to concentrate neuromuscular effort and yields a larger training effect than the progressive resistance method for developing maximum strength and the ability to display it quickly (Siff, 2003)
Bronchioles
The branching air passageways inside the lungs (Marieb, 1998)
Bronchus
One of the two large branches of the trachea that leads to the lungs (Marieb, 1998)
Buffer
Any substance in a fluid that lessens the change in hydrogen ion (H+) concentration which otherwise would occur by adding acids or bases; chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Bulimia Nervosa
Recurrent binge eating followed by purging (self-vomiting, misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas) or by fasting/excessive exercise (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Bursa
A fibrous sac lined with synovial membrane and containing synovial fluid; occurs between bones and muscle tendons (or other structures), where it acts to decrease friction during movement (Marieb, 1998)
Bursitis
Inflammation of the bursa (Marieb, 1998)
Caffeine
A central nervous system stimulant believed by some athletes to have ergogenic properties (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Calcaneal
tendon
Tendon that attaches the calf muscles to the heelbone (calcaneus); also called the Achilles tendon (Marieb, 1998)
Calcitonin
A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland that causes a decrease in the blood calcium level; it is thought that calcitonin may also be secreted from the parathyroid glands; also called thyrocalcitonin (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Callus
Localized thickening of skin epidermis resulting from physical trauma; repair tissue (fibrous or bony) formed at a fracture site (Marieb, 1998)
Calorie
A unit of work or energy equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1º C; energy exchanges associated with biochemical reactions are usually reported in kilocalories (1 kcal = 1000 cal) or large calories (Cal) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Calorimeter
Measures heat production from oxidized food stuffs (bomb-type) or heat production from the human body (line-in-type) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Capacity
Interference
Interference between tasks caused by limitations in attention (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Capillary
A fine network of small vessels located between arteries and veins where exchanges between tissue and blood occur (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Capillary
to Fiber Ratio
The number of capillaries per muscle fiber (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Carbamino
Compounds
The end product obtained from the chemical combination of plasma proteins and/or hemoglobin (Hgb) and carbon dioxide (CO2) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Carbaminohemoglobin
A carbamino compound formed in the red blood cells when CO2 reacts with Hgb (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Carbohydrate
Any of a group of chemical compounds, including sugars, starches, and cellulose; contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only; organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen including sugars, starches, and cellulose (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Carbohydrate
Loading
A technique used to enhance muscle glycogen prior to long-term aerobic endurance exercise; the most effective regiment with the fewest side effects is three days of a high-carbohydrate diet in concert with tapering exercise the week before the competition and complete rest the day before the event (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Carbonic
Acid-Bicarbonate System
Chemical buffer system that helps maintain pH homeostasis of the blood (Marieb, 1998)
Carbonic
Anhydrase
An enzyme that speeds up the reaction of carbon dioxide (CO2) with water (H2O) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cardiac Cycle
Contraction (systole) and relaxation (distole) of the heart; sequence of events encompassing one complete contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles of the heart (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Cardiac Hypertrophy
Enlargement of the heart by increases in muscle wall thickness or chamber size or both (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Cardiac Muscle
Specialized muscle of the heart (Marieb, 1998)
Cardiac Output (Q)
The amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute; the product of the stroke volume and the heart rate; Amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle in one minute (Foss & Keteyian, 1998), (Marieb, 1998)
Cardiac Reserve
The difference between resting and maximal cardiac output (Marieb, 1998)
Cardiogenic Shock
Pump failure; the heart is so inefficient that it cannot sustain adequate circulation (Marieb, 1998)
Cardiorespiratory Endurance
The ability of the lungs and heart to take in and transport adequate amounts of oxygen to the working muscles, allowing activities that involve large muscle masses (e.g., running, swimming, bicycling) to be performed over long periods of time (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cardiovascular Deconditioning
A decrease in the cardiovascular system’s ability to deliver sufficient oxygen and nutrients (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Cardiovascular Drift
A compensatory
increase in heart rate that usually occurs during prolonged endurance
exercise
in response to a decrease in stroke volume; cardiac output is
maintained as a
result (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cardiovascular System
Organ system which distributes the blood to deliver nutrients and remove wastes (Marieb, 1998)
Carotid Body
A receptor in the common carotid artery sensitive to changing oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels of the blood (Marieb, 1998)
Carotid Sinus
A dialation of a common carotid artery; involved in regulation of systemic blood pressure (Marieb, 1998)
Cartilage
White, semiopaque connective tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Cartilage Bone (Endochondral
Bone)
Bone formed by the calcification of hyaline cartilage structures (Marieb, 1998)
Cartilage Matrix
The internal environment of the cartilage tissue, within which the collagen fibers traverse (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Cartilaginous Joints
Bones united by cartilage; no joint cavity is present (Marieb, 1998)
Catabolic Hormone
Hormones that degrade cell proteins to support glucose synthesis (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Catabolism (Catabolic)
Process in which living cells break down substances into simpler substances (Marieb, 1998)
Catalyst
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself becoming chemically changes or part of the product (Marieb, 1998)
Catastrophe Hypothesis
A nonlinear description of the nonlinear relationship between arousal and performance (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Catastrophic Theory
The theory that holds that increases in physiological arousal occur in the presence of cognitive anxiety until a point at which a sudden drop in performance occurs (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Catecholamines
Epinephrine and norepinephrine (Marieb, 1998)
Caudal
Literally, toward the tail; in humans, the inferior portion of the anatomy (Marieb, 1998)
Ceiling Effect
A limitation, imposed either by the scoring system or by physiological-psychological sources, that places a maximum on the score that a performer can achieve in a task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cell Turnover
The constant breakdown and regeneration of cells in the body (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Cellular Respiration
Metabolic processes in which ATP is produced (Marieb, 1998)
Center of Gravity
The point at which all of the body’s mass seems to be concentrated; the balance point of the body; the point about which the sum of the torques equals zero (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Center of Mass
A balance point of a body; the point about which all of the mass particles of the body are evenly distributed (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Central (Haversian) Canal
The canal
in the center of each osteon
that contains minute
blood vessels and nerve fibers that
serve the needs of
the osteocytes (Marieb,
1998)
Central Command
Neurons
originating in the motor
cortex that influence the cardiorespiratory
(ventilation and cardiovascular) center of the medulla on their way to
initiate
skeletal muscle action (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain
and spinal cord (Marieb, 1998)
Central Neural Fatigue
Decrease in muscle force attributable to a decline in motoneuronal output (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Central Pattern Generators
Mechanisms
in the spinal cord capable of providing oscillatory behavior thought to
be
involved in the control of locomotion and other tasks (Schmidt
&
Lee, 1999)
Cerebellum
Brain
region most involved in producing smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle
activity
(Marieb, 1998)
Cerebral Cortex
That
portion of the brain
responsible for mental functions, movements, visceral functions,
perception,
and behavioral reactions, and for the association and integration of
these
functions; the outer gray
matter region of the
cerebral hemispheres (Foss & Keteyian, 1998),
(Marieb, 1998)
Cerebral Infarction
Death of brain tissue that results from insufficient blood supply attributable to blockage or damage of a cerebral vessel (also known as a stroke) (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Cerebral Thrombosis
A blood
clot in the brain (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cerebral White Matter
Consists largely of myelinated fibers bundled into large tracts; provides for communication between cerebral areas and lower CNS centers (Marieb, 1998)
Cervical Vertebrae
The
seven vertebrae of the vertebral column located in the neck (Marieb,
1998)
Changing Component Abilities Hypothesis
The
hypothesis that the set of abilities underlying a skill shifts
systematically
as practice continues (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Charles’s Law
The
volume occupied by a gas (at
constant pressure) is reduced or expanded in direct proportion to its
temperature (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Chemical Bond
An energy
relationship holding atoms together; involves the interaction of
electrons
(Marieb, 1998)
Chemical Energy
Energy
stored in the bonds of chemical substances (Marieb, 1998)
Chemical Reaction
Process
in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down (Marieb, 1998)
Chemical Transmitter Substance
Stored
in vesicles within the
synaptic knobs of axons; released with the arrival of an impulse into
the
synaptic cleft or gap (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Chemoreceptor
Receptors
sensitive to various chemicals in solution (Marieb, 1998)
Childhood
The period of life between the first birthday and the onset of puberty (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Choice Reaction Time
Reaction
time for a task in which each response to be made is associated with a
different stimulus (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cholesterol
Steroid
found in animal fats as well as in most body tissues; made by the liver
(Marieb, 1998)
Cholinergic Fibers
Nerve
endings that, upon stimulation, release acetylcholine (Marieb, 1998)
Cholinesterase
A
chemical that deactivates or
breaks down acetylcholine (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Chondroblast
Actively
mitotic cell form of cartilage (Marieb, 1998)
Chondrocyte
Mature
cell form of cartilage (Marieb, 1998)
Chronic Adaptation
A physiological change that occurs when the body is exposed to repeated exercise bouts over weeks or months; these changes generally improve the body’s efficiency at rest and during exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
A syndrome that appears to involve immune system dysfunction; patients have incapacitating fatigue, sore throat, muscle tenderness or pain, and cognitive dysfunction; the symptoms may vary in severity over time but generally last for months or years (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Chronic Hypertrophy
An increase in muscle size that results from repeated long-term resistance training (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD)
Collective
term for progressive, obstructive respiratory disorders; includes
emphysema,
chronic bronchitis (Marieb, 1998)
Chronological Age
Age measured in terms of months or years (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Chronotropic
Rate of myocardial contractions (beats x min-1) (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Chunking
The combining of individual elements in memory into larger units (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Circa-Maximal Methods
A type of
training in which all of the loads utilized are close to
one’s 1RM (90% to 97%)
(Siff, 2003)
Circumduction
Movement
of a body part so that it outlines a cone in space (Marieb, 1998)
Cirrhosis
Chronic
disease of the liver, characterized by an overgrowth of connective
tissue or
fibrosis (Marieb, 1998)
Cisterns
The
terminal ends of the
longitudinal tubules of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which store Ca++;
also
called outer cisterns, outer vesicles, and terminal cisternae
(Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Classic Formula
A method of comparing lifts by dividing a lift by body weight to the two-thirds power thus accounting for the relationship of cross-sectional area versus volume (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Closed-Loop System
A control system employing feedback, a reference of correctness, a computation of error, and subsequent correction in order to maintain a desired state; sometimes called a servomechanism or servo (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Closed Skills
Skills that are performed in stable or predictable environmental settings (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cluster Training
A form of interval training that requires one to perform one or more repetitions with a 10-20 second interval between each repetition or cluster of repetitions in an extended set (Siff, 2003)
Coagulation
Process
in which blood is transformed from a liquid to a gel; blood clotting
(Marieb,
1998)
Cocaine
A so-called recreational drug that is a central nervous system stimulant which mimics the action of the sympathetic nervous system; it is generally ergolytic (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Coccygeal Vertebra
3 to 5 vertebrae which form a kind of vestigial internal tail extending downward from the pelvis (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Cocktail Party Problem
The phenomenon, described by Cherry, whereby humans can attend to a single conversation at a noisy gathering, neglecting other inputs (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cocontraction
Agonist and antagonist muscles contracting simulataneously, with a dominance of the former producing external movement (Siff, 2003)
Coenzyme
Nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme, typically a vitamin (Marieb, 1998)
Cognitive Anxiety
Psychological processes and worrisome thoughts (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Cognitive Phase
The first of three phases of learning proposed by Fitts, in which learners’ performances are heavily based on cognitive or verbal processes (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cognitive Plyometrics
A plyometric action produced under conditions in which the athlete anticipates a particular course of action (Siff, 2003)
Cognitive
Psychology
A psychological tradition in which the nature of unobservable mental processes in human behavior is studied by indirect methods (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Collagen Fiber
The most
abundant of the three fibers found in the matrix of connective tissue
(Marieb,
1998)
Combination Training
Adding aerobic training to the training of anaerobic athletes with the goal of enhancing recovery; may reduce anaerobic performance capabilities as a result (particularly high-strength/high-power performance) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Commutative System
A
system in which
the order of the operators does not matter: A*B = B*A (Siff, 2003)
Compensatory Acceleration Training
During a lift,
proprioceptive feedback makes the athlete aware that the load is
changing and
enables him or her to intervene voluntarily in the loading process by
accelerating or decelerating the bar to increase or decrease the force
involved; can be useful in alternating muscle tension or movement
velocity to
achieve a specific training goal (Siff, 2003)
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Clinical
test that includes a hematocrit, counts all formed elements and
clotting
factors, and other indicators of normal blood function (Marieb, 1998)
Complementary Proteins
Proteins that do not contain all of the essential amino acids in and of themselves, but when combined with other incomplete proteins with the missing needed amino acids, can still provide all of the essential amino acids required by the body (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Complex Training
Involves concurrent (during one workout) and parallel (prolonged stages of training) use of several training tasks and loads of different primary emphasis; one of the most effective forms of training construction (Siff, 2003)
Component
Interaction
A characteristic of some tasks in which the adjustment on one component of the task requires an adjustment of some other component (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Compound
Substance
composed of two or more different elements, the atoms of which are
chemically
united (Marieb, 1998)
Concentrated Loading
A
training method associated with highly qualified athletes in which
loads are
concentrated during specific stages of preparation; a block of training
is
designed to emphasis one particular quality, such as strength, and all
loads
are prescribed to specifically address that quality (Siff,
2003)
Concentric Muscle Action
Muscle action in which the ends of the muscle are drawn closer (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Concurrent Feedback
Feedback that is presented simultaneously with the action (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Concurrent System of Training
The parallel training of several motor abilities, such as strength, speed and endurance, over the same period, with the intention of producing multi-faceted development of physical fitness (Siff, 2003)
Conditioning
Augmentation of
the energy capacity of muscle through a physical exercise program. Conditioning is not
primarily concerned with
the skill of performance, as would be the case in training (Foss
&
Keteyian, 1998)
Conducting Zone
Includes
all respiratory passageways that provide conduits for air to reach the
sites of
gas exchange (the respiratory zone) (Marieb, 1998)
Conduction
The
transfer of heat between
objects of different temperatures in direct contact with each other
(Foss &
Keteyian, 1998)
Congenital Heart Disease
A heat defect present at birth that occurs from abnormal prenatal development of the heart or associated blood vessels; also known as congenital heart defect (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
Condition
in which the pumping efficiency of the heart is depressed so that
circulation
is inadequate to meet tissue needs (Marieb, 1998)
Conjugate Sequence System of Training
A
training system involving the successive introduction of separate,
specific
means, each of which has a progressively stronger training effect, and
coupling
them sequentially to create favorable conditions for eliciting the
cumulative
effect of all the training loads (Siff, 2003)
Connective Tissues
A primary
tissue; form and function vary extensively; functions include support,
storage,
and protection (Marieb, 1998)
Consciousness
The
mechanism or process by which humans are aware of sensations, elements
in
memory, or internal events (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Conservation of Angular Momentum
The concept that angular momentum is constant unless the object is acted on by an external force (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Constant Error (CE)
With respect to sign, the average error of a set of scores form a target value (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Contextual Interference
The
interference effects in performance and learning that arise from
practicing one
task in the context of other tasks (Schmidt &
Lee, 1999)
Contingency
Refers to a conditional consequence of the behavior that is being punished, such as being allowed to compete (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Continuous Skills
Skills that appear to have no recognizable beginning or end (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Continuous Tension Sets
Any set in which each repetition is done smoothly without ballistic bounce, cheating or significant pause at either end of the motion (Siff, 2003)
Continuous Work (Continuous Training)
Exercises
performed to completion
without relief periods (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Contractile Velocity
The speed of action associated with specific muscle fiber types (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Contractility
Muscle
cells’ ability to move by shortening (Marieb, 1998)
Contraction
To
shorten or develop tension, an ability
highly
developed in muscle cells (Marieb, 1998)
Contraction Failure
Inability of the muscle to shorten or lengthen under control (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Contralateral
Relating
to the opposite side (Marieb, 1998)
Control Dynamics
The mechanical characteristics of the levers, handwheels, and the like in control systems; affected by variable such as spring tension and inertia that change the “feel” of control (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Controlled Processing
Information processing that is relatively slow, that is done serially with other processes, and that requires effort (compare with automatic processing) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Convection
The transfer of heat from one place to another by the motion of a heated substance- e.g., air or water (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Converging Strength Training Means
A form of long-term organization of strength training; the convergence of all the different partial training effects to enhance specific performance (Siff, 2003)
Coordination
Behavior of two or more degrees of freedom in relation to each other to produce skilled activity (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Core Temperature
Temperature of deep body tissues such as head, thorax, and digestive system (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cori Cycle
A process where
lactic acid from muscle metabolism diffuses into the blood and is
carried to the
liver for conversion to glucose where it can be used, stored, or
released into
the blood (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Coronary Artery Disease
Progressive
narrowing of the coronary arteries (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Coronary Circulation
The
functional blood supply of the heart; shortest circulation in the body
(Marieb,
1998)
Correlation Coefficient (r)
A statistical measure of the degree of linear association between two variables (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cortical Bone
Compact
bone (Baechle
& Earle, 2000)
Corticosteroids
Steroid
hormones released by the adrenal cortex (Marieb, 1998)
Cortisol (Hydrocortisone)
Glucocorticoid
produced by the adrenal cortex (Marieb,
1998)
Cost-Benefit Analysis
A method by which
the benefits from anticipating correctly can be weighted against the
“cost” of
anticipating incorrectly (Schmidt &
Lee, 1999)
Counterconditioning
A technique utilized to help an athlete confront fear; allows an athlete to replace a negative response to certain cues with a positive response (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Coupled Reactions
Two series of chemical reactions, one of which releases energy (heat) for use by the other (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Coupling Time
The explosive isometric phase between the end of the eccentric action and the beginning of the concentric action during a plyometric movement (Siff, 2003)
Covalent Cross-Linking
Strong
chemical bonds that form between adjacent collagen molecules throughout
collagen bundles (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Creatine Kinase
Enzyme
that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate from phosphocreatine to ADP,
forming creatine and
ATP; important in muscle contraction (Marieb,
1998)
Creatine Phosphate (CP)
Compound
that serves as an alternative energy source for muscle tissue (Marieb,
1998)
Creatinine
A
nitrogenous waste molecule which is not reabsorbed by the kidney; this
characteristic makes it useful for measurement of the GFR and
glomerular
function (Marieb, 1998)
Cristae
A series of inward membrane folds and convolutions within mitochondria that contain the enzyme systems required for aerobic metabolism (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Criterion Variable
In studies of prediction, the variable or score that is predicted from the predictor variables; the “best” obtaninable measure of the construct that is to be predicted (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cross-Bridges
Extensions of myosin (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cross-Innervate
A
surgical procedure in
experimental animals where the nerve fibers to Type I and Type II
muscle fibers
are crossed over and reattached (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cross-Reactivity
A receptor partially interacts with hormones that are not specifically designed for it (i.e., allosteric binding) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Cross-Section
A cut
running horizontally form right to left, dividing the body into
superior and
inferior parts (Marieb, 1998)
Cross-Training or Transfer of Training
A theory that developing one region or quality of the body will result in improvement of other region or quality; also used to describe potential benefits of combined running, biking, swimming, and/or weight training (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Crossed Extensor Reflex
A flexor reflex in one limb produces an extensor reflex in the contralateral limb approximately 0.2 to 0.5 seconds later (Siff, 2003)
Crossman-Goodeve Theory
A theory of the Fitts relationship that assumed a series of constant-duration movements, each interspersed with feedback-based corrections; an intermittent control theory of rapid movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Cryogenic
Pertaining to the production of low temperatures (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cuff Technique
A method of temporary deafferentation in which blood flow to the limb is eliminated by a blood pressure cuff, rendering the afferent neurons anoxic so that they cannot deliver sensory information (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Current or Contemporary Control
Woodworth’s
idea that the latter portions of a movement were controlled by a
feedback-based
“homing-in” process that allowed a target to be
achieved (Schmidt &
Lee, 1999)
Cutaneous
Pertaining
to the skin (Marieb, 1998)
Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (Cyclic AMP)
Important intracellular second messenger that mediates hormonal effects; formed from ATP by the action of adenylate cyclase, an enzyme associated with the plasma membrane (Marieb, 1998)
Cyclic AMP Amplification
Impact of a hormone on a membrane causing cyclic AMP to form on the inside surface; has effect of multiplying the hormone effect (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cyclic AMP Mechanism
The most common mechanism for the action of hormones on their target cells; hormones arrive at receptors and activate adenyl cyclase to speed cyclic AMP formation from ATP resulting in numerous specific actions (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cytochromes
Co-enzyme carriers containing iron (Fe++ and Fe +++ forms) that pass on hydrogen and associated electrons in the electron transport system (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
Cytokines
Chemical mediators involved in cellular immunity; include lymphokines and monokines (Marieb, 1998)
Cytoplasm
Cell fluid that makes up the inside of cells; in muscle cells it is called sarcoplasm (Foss & Keteyian, 1998)
The partial pressures of gases in a mixture remain constant and will act independently of each other (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Damping
Efficiency
The ability of the body to absorb and dissipate shock or vibration; plays a major role in the storage and use of elastic energy, as well as the prevention of injury during activities involving rapid acceleration and deceleration (Siff, 2003)
Deafferentation
Eliminating, usually by surgery (dorsal rhizotomy), the sensory input to the spinal cord while leaving efferent output intact (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Deamination
Removal of an amine group from an organic compound (Marieb, 1998)
Decomposition Reaction
Chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms (Marieb, 1998)
Decompression
Sickness
(Bends)
A condition in which bubbles of nitrogen are trapped in the blood and tissues during a too-rapid ascent from depth during diving; characterized by severe discomfort and pain (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Degrees
of Freedom
The number of separate independent dimensions of movement in a system that must be controlled (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Degrees
of Freedom
Problem
The difficulty in explaining the simultaneous control of multiple, independently moving body parts (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Dehydration
Condition
of excessive water loss (Marieb, 1998)
Delayed Onset Muscular Soreness
(DOMS)
Muscle
soreness that develops a day or two after a heavy bout of exercise and
that is
associated with actual injury within the muscle (Wilmore
& Costill,
2004)
Deliberate Practice
Identified
by Ericsson as practice that is not inherently enjoyable and is
undertaken for
the sole purpose of improving performance (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
DeLorme Method
Training in which a weight 50% of one’s 10RM is lifted 10 times for the first set, followed by a set of 10 repetitions at 75% of the 10RM, and finally a set of 10 reps at the 10RM weight (Siff, 2003)
Dendrites
Short
extensions
from the body of a nerve cell (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Densitometry
The measurement of body density (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Density
The
mass per unit volume of an object (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Depolarization
Loss
of a state of polarity; loss or reduction of negative membrane
potential
(Marieb, 1998)
Depth Jumps
A type of plyometric training requiring an athlete to drop off of a raised surface (such as a box) onto another surface where upon the athlete jumps energetically; the optimal depth of the jump is determined by the athlete’s strength fitness and should ensure that significant dynamic force is developed without slowing down the transition from eccentric to concentric work by the muscles involved (Siff, 2003)
Depth Landings (Depth Drops)
A type of
plyometric training requiring an athlete to drop off a raised surface
(such as
a box) and land on another surface without a rebounding jump; can have
a
significant effect on concentric and eccentric strength (Siff,
2003)
Detraining
Changes in body structure or function caused by reduction or cessation of regular physical training (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Development
Changes that occur in the body starting at conception and continuing through adulthood; differentiation along specialized lines of function, reflecting changes that accompany growth (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Diabetes Insipidus
Disease
characterized by passage of a large quantity of dilute urine plus
intense
thirst and dehydration caused by inadequate release of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) (Marieb, 1998)
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Disease caused by deficient insulin release, leading to inability of the body cells to use carbohydrates (Marieb, 1998)
Diaphragm
Any partition or wall separating one area from another; a muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the lower abdominopelvic cavity (Marieb, 1998)
Diaphragmatic
Breathing
Referred to as “belly breathing”, this form of breathing is a basic stress management technique and a precursor to all other mental training techniques; it focuses thought on breathing to clear the mind and therefore increase attentional capacity (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Diaphysis
Elongated shaft of a long bone (Marieb, 1998)
Diarthrosis
Freely movable joint (Marieb, 1998)
Diastole
Period of the cardiac cycle when either the ventricles or the atria are relaxing (Marieb, 1998)
Diastolic
Pressure
Arterial blood pressure reached during or as a result of diastole; lowest level of any given ventricular cycle (Marieb, 1998)
Diastolic
Volume
The amount of blood that fills the ventricle during diastole (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Dietary
Reference
Intakes (DRIs)
Recommendations of the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences for the intake of vitamins and minerals to be used for planning and assessing diets for healthy people (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Differential
Approach
That approach to the study of behavior that focuses on individual differences, abilities, and prediction (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Difficulty
Depending on the particular paradigm, either the ratio of the amplitude to the target widths or the ratio of the movement amplitude to movement time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Diffusion
The spreading of particles in a gas or solution with a movement toward uniform distribution of particles (Marieb, 1998)
Digestion
Chemical
or mechanical process of breaking down foodstuffs into substances that
can be
absorbed (Marieb, 1998)
Diminishing Sets
A method
of training in which an athlete tries to perform a very large number of
repetitions (usually 100) in as few sets as possible with the same
load, with a
minimal rest period between sets; when one is capable of executing the
100
repetitions in 4 to 5 sets, the load should be increased for the next
workout (Siff,
2003)
Dipeptide
A
combination of two amino acids united by means of a peptide bond
(Marieb, 1998)
Diploe
The
internal layer of spongy bone in flat bones (Marieb, 1998)
Direct Calorimetry
A method that gauges the body’s rate and quantity of energy production by direct measurement of the body’s heat production (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Direct Gene Activation
The method of action of steroid hormones; they bind to receptors in the cell, and then the hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus and activates certain genes (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Disaccharide
Literally,
double sugar; sucrose, lactose (Marieb, 1998)
Discrete Skills
Skills that have a definite beginning and end (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Discrimination Reaction Time
Reaction
time for a task in which a number of stimuli can be presented, with a
response
being made only if a given stimulus occurs (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
Dislocation (Luxation)
Occurs
when bones are foced
out of their normal alignment at
a joint (Marieb, 1998)
Disordered Eating
Abnormal eating behavior that ranges from excessive restriction of food intake to pathological behaviors, such as self-induced vomiting and laxative abuse; disordered eating can lead to clinical eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Displacement Reaction
Chemical
reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined
with
different atoms (Marieb, 1998)
Dissociation
A strategy in which an athlete will distract him or herself from their performance and perceived physiological state while engaged in activity to try and reduce pain and fatigue (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Distal
Away
from the attached end of a limb or the origin of a structure (Marieb,
1998)
Distress
Negative stress; detrimental stress that causes decay, damage, death, or disease (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Siff, 2003)
Distributed Loading
Training in which a gradual increase in functional indicators is associated with a moderate volume of continuous loading (Siff, 2003)
Distributed Practice
A sequence of practice and rest periods in which the practice time is relatively restful, often equal to or less than the rest time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Diuretics
Chemicals
that
enhance urinary output (Marieb, 1998)
Diurnal Variation
Normal fluctuations in hormone levels throughout the day (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
A nucleic acid found in all living cells; it carries the organism’s hereditary information (Marieb, 1998)
Dopamine
An excitatory neurotransmitter chemical (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Dorsal
Pertaining
to the back; posterior (Marieb, 1998)
Dorsal Rhizotomy
The cutting of the dorsal roots at various segmental levels of the spinal cord, resulting in deafferentation from the associated areas of the body (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Dorsal Root
The
collection of nerve fibers from the periphery into a bundle near the
posterior
side of the spinal cord at each spinal level; the major sensory input
to the
cord (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Double-Blind Study
An experimental protocol in which neither the investigators nor the subjects know which group is receiving a placebo and which group is receiving the real drug or treatment (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Douglas
Bag
A rubber-lined, canvas bad used for collection of expired gas; rubber meterologic balloons now are used (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Down-Regulation
Decreased
response to hormonal stimulation; involves a loss in the number of
receptors
and effectively prevents the target cells from overreacting to
persistently
high hormone levels (Marieb, 1998)
Drug
A chemical substance given with the intention of preventing or curing disease or otherwise enhancing the physical or mental welfare of humans or animals (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Dry
Bulb Thermometer
A common thermometer used to record temperature of the air (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Dual-Energy
X-Ray
Absorptiometry (DEXA)
A technique used to assess both regional and total body composition through the use of X-ray absorptiometry (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Dynamic
Action
Any muscle action that produces joint movement (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Dynamic
Analysis
A calculation of the forces and moments when there are significant linear and/or angular accelerations (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Dynamic
Correspondence
A principle of training that emphasizes that the means and methods of strength training for specific sports should be chosen to enhance the required motor qualities in terms of the amplitude and direction of movement, the accentuated region of force production, the dynamics of the effort, the rate and time of maximum force production, and the regime of muscular work (Siff, 2003)
Dynamic Equilibrium
Sense that reports on angular or rotary movements of the head in space (Marieb, 1998)
Dynamic Flexibility
The opposition or resistance of a joint to motion; forces opposing movement rather than the range of movement itself, which is static flexibility (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Dynamic
Pattern Theory
A view that describes coordination as a self-organizing process of pattern formation (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Dynamic
Stabilization
Muscles contract continuously to stabilize a body segment during a movement while simultaneously carrying out a mobilizing role (Siff, 2003)
Dynamic
Stretching
Umbrella term for non-static stretches including ballistic stretching, active stretching, PNF stretching, and plyometric stretching (Siff, 2003)
Dynamics
The branch of mechanics in which the system being studied undergoes acceleration (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Dynamometric
Profile
Characterizes the strength topography of representative muscle groups of athletes of different specialization, as well as the changes in the general profile with growth of sports mastery; reflects the characteristics of the strength fitness of athletes in a given sport and can serve to some extent as a standard for controlling the training process (Siff, 2003)
Dyskinesia
Disorders
of muscle tone, posture, or involuntary movements (Marieb, 1998)
Dysmenorrhea
Painful
menstruation
(Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Dyspnea
Labored
breathing (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Eating
Disorders
Psychological problems that manifest in disturbed eating patterns; malnutrition is secondary to the disease; the root of eating disorders is complex and multifactorial, with the etiology of the problem linked to self-esteem, family dynamics, stress, sense of loss of control, sexual abuse, and other sources (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Early Responding
Processing all of the aspects of a movement in advance so that the movement can occur at or before the stimulus (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Eccentric Force
A
force that is not
applied through the center of mass of an object (Hamill
& Knutzen
2003)
Eccentric Muscle Action
Muscle action in which a force external to the muscle overcomes the muscle force and the ends of the muscle are drawn further apart (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Eccrine Glands
Sweat
glands abundant on the palms, soles of feet, and the forehead (Marieb,
1998)
Ecological Viewpoint
A point of view emphasizing the study of movement in natural environments (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Ectoderm
Embryonic
germ layer; forms the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives, and
nervous
tissues (Marieb, 1998)
Ectomorphy
A body type component characterized by linearity, fragility, and delicacy of body (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Edema
Abnormal
accumulation of fluid in body parts or tissues; causes swelling
(Marieb, 1998)
Effective Target Width (We)
The size
of the target area that the performer actually uses in a series of
aiming
movements, calculated as the standard deviation of the movement
endpoints (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
Effector
Organ,
gland, or muscle capable of being activated by nerve endings (Marieb,
1998)
Effector Anticipation
Predicting
the duration of internal processes for a planned movement so that it
can be
made coincident with some anticipated external event (Schmidt
& Lee,
1999)
Efferent
Carrying
away or away from, especially a nerve fiber that carries impulses away
from the
central nervous system (Marieb, 1998)
Efficiency
The ratio of work output to work input expressed as a percentage (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Effort
Arm
See Moment Arm (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Effort
Force
A force applied to a lever, causing movement of
the
lever (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Ejection Fraction
The fraction of the end-diastolic volume ejected from the heart (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Elaboration and Distinctiveness Hypothesis
A view of contextual interference that emphasizes the comparative and contrastive value of tasks in short-term memory (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Elastic Cartilage
Cartilage
with abundant elastic fibers; more flexible than hyaline cartilage
(Marieb,
1998)
Elastic Fiber
Fiber
formed from the protein elastin,
which gives a rubbery
and resilient quality to the matrix of connective tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Elastin
An extensible protein (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Electrical Potential
The capacity for producing electrical effects, such as an electric current, between two bodies (e.g., between the inside and outside of a cell) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Electrical Stimulation Training
Stimulation of a muscle by passing an electrical current through it (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
Graphic record of the electrical activity of the heart (Marieb, 1998)
Electrochemical Gradient
The distribution of ions involving both a chemical and an electrical gradient interacting to determine the direction of diffusion (Marieb, 1998)
Electromechanical
Delay
Phase
Occurs when some event such as contact with a surface prevents a limb from moving further and provokes the muscles to contract; the delay refers to the time elapsing between the onset of the action potential in the motor nerves and the onset of the muscle contraction (Siff, 2003)
Electromyography
(EMG)
A recording of the electrical activity from muscles (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Electrolyte
Chemical substances, such as salts, acids, and bases, that ionize and dissociate in water and are capable of conducting an electrical current (Marieb, 1998)
Electrolyte Balance
Refers to the balance between input and output of salts (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) in the body (Marieb, 1998)
Electron
A
negatively charged particle (Foss
and Keteyian, 1998)
Electron Micrographs
Photographs
of tissues as magnified
thousands of times in an electron microscope (Foss
and Keteyian, 1998)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
A series of chemical reactions that convert the hydrogen ion generated by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle into water and produce energy for oxidative phosphorylation (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Embolism
Obstruction of a blood vessel by an embolus (blood clot, fatty mass, bubble of air, or other debris) floating in the blood (Marieb, 1998)
Emergency Muscles
A special class of assistant movers which come into play only when maximal force must be generated during a particular movement (Siff, 2003)
Emergency
Stabilizers
Muscles which are recruited in addition to the primary stabilizers to help stabilize a body segment during very intensive efforts by the prime and assistant movers (Siff, 2003)
Empirical
Equation
An equation describing the outcome of an experiment in which the functional mathematical relationship is estimated from the empirical observations (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
End Branches
Branches coming off the ends of the axons leading to the axon terminals (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
End-Diastolic Volume
The volume of blood available to be pumped by the ventricle at the end of the filling phase, or diastole (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
End-Systolic Volume
The volume of blood remaining in the left ventricle at the end of systole, just after contraction (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Endergonic Reaction
Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, otherwise known as an anabolic reaction (Marieb, 1998)
Endocardium
Endothelia membrane that lines the interior of the heart (Marieb, 1998)
Endochondral Ossification
Embryonic formation of bone by the replacement of calcified cartilage; most skeletal bones formed by the process (Marieb, 1998)
Endocrine Glands
Ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood (Marieb, 1998)
Endocrine System
Body system that includes internal organs that secrete hormones (Marieb, 1998)
Endomysium
Thin connective tissue surrounding each muscle cell (Marieb, 1998)
Endomorphy
A
body type component characterized
by roundness and softness of the body (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Endorphins
One of several substances in the general category of endogenous opioid peptides that may provide mood altering, pain-reduction, and relaxing benefits; implicated in phenomena known as “runner’s high” and “exercise addiction” (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Endosteum
Connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surfaces (Marieb, 1998)
Endothelium
Single layer of simple squamous cells that line the walls of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels (Marieb, 1998)
Endurance
The time limit of a person’s ability to maintain either an isometric force or a power level involving combinations of concentric and/or eccentric muscle actions (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Energy
The capacity to do work, may be stored (potential energy) or in action (kinetic energy) (Marieb, 1998)
Energy Capacity
The
maximal amount of energy that
can be liberated by a metabolic system; independent of time but using
all
available stores of fuel substrate (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Energy Continuum
A conceptual model whereby the energy required for mostly anaerobic, mixed, and mostly aerobic activities is provided via a greater or lesser use of the same metabolic pathways (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Energy Density
Refers to the calories per weight or volume of food (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Energy Intake
Energy liberated during food oxidation (Marieb, 1998)
Energy Nutrients
Sources of usable energy from food; carbohydrates, fats, and proteins (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Energy Output
Sum of energy lost as heat, as work, and as fat or glycogen storage (Marieb, 1998)
Energy
State
A
mechanism of control over
cellular metabolism that is tightly linked to the ongoing use of energy
and the
rate of ADP production (Foss
and Keteyian, 1998)
Energy Substrate
Molecules that provide starting materials for bioenergeic reactions; include phosphagens (ATP and creatine phosphate), glucose, glycogen, lactate, free fatty acids, and amino acids (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Energy System
One
of three metabolic systems
involving a series of chemical reactions resulting in the formation of
waste
products and the manufacture of ATP (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Engram
A memorized motor pattern stored in the brain; a permanent trace left by a stimulus in the tissue protoplasm (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Ensemble
The combination of the various sources of sensory information that enable accurate perception of movement and position (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Enzyme
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction (Marieb, 1998)
Ependymal Cell
A type of CNS supporting cell; lines the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord (Marieb, 1998)
Epidural Space
Area between the bony vertebrae and the dura mater of the spinal cord (Marieb, 1998)
Epimysium
Sheath of fibrous connective tissue surrounding a muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Epinephrine
Chief hormone produced by the adrenal medulla; also called adrenaline; a hormone secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland that has effects on the heart, the blood vessels, metabolism, and the CNS (Marieb, 1998), (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Epiphyseal Plate
Plate of hyaline cartilage at the junction of the diaphysis and epiphysis that provides for growth in length of a long bone (Marieb, 1998)
Epiphysis
The end of a long bone, attached to the shaft (Marieb, 1998)
Epithelium
Pertaining to a primary tissue that covers the body surface, lines its internal cavities, and forms glands (Marieb, 1998)
Equilibrium
The state of a system whose acceleration is unchanged (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Equilibrium Point
For a given level of muscle activation, the hypothetical joint angle at which the torques from the two opposing muscle groups are equal and opposite (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Equilibrium Point Models (a and l)
Limb control models in which a movement endpoint is produced through the specification of an equilibrium point between the agonist and the antagonist muscle groups (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Ergogenic
Able to improve work or performance (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Ergogenic Aid
Any
factor that improves work performance (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Ergolytic
Able
to impair work
or performance (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Ergometer
An
apparatus or device, such as a
treadmill or stationary cycle, used for measuring the physiological
effects of
exercise (Foss and Keteyian,
1998)
Ergonomics
The study of human beings in work environments (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Error in Execution
An error in which the planned spatial-temporal goal of a movement is appropriate, but the movement deviates from the desired path because of factors occurring during execution (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Error in Selection
An error in which the planned spatial-temporal goal is inappropriate given the nature of the environment (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells (Marieb, 1998)
Erythropoiesis
Process of erythrocyte formation (Marieb, 1998)
Erythropoietin
Hormone that stimulates production of red blood cells (Marieb, 1998)
Essential Amino Acids
The eight or nine amino acids necessary for human growth that the body cannot synthesize and are thus essential parts of our diets (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Essential Hypertension
Abnormally
high blood pressure in
humans that has no known cause and therefore no known cure; most common
type of
high blood pressure (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Essential Nutrients
Nutrients
that cannot be
manufactured by the body or are manufactured at a pace that is slower
than the
body’s needs (e.g., linoleic
acid) (Foss and Keteyian,
1998)
Estradiol
A hormone of the estrogen category; the primary form produced by the human ovaries; produces female secondary sex characteristics and causes estrus in animals (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Estrogens
Hormones that stimulate female secondary sex characteristics; female sex hormones (Marieb, 1998)
Eumenorrhea
Normal menstrual function (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Eustress
Positive stress; beneficial stress which produces growth (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Siff, 2003)
Evaporation
The
loss of heat resulting from changing a liquid to a vapor (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Excess Postexercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC)
The oxygen uptake above resting values used to restore the body to the preexercise condition (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Excitation
A response to a stimulus (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Sequence of events by which transmission of an action potential along the sarcolemma leads to the sliding of myofilaments (Marieb, 1998)
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
A
transient increase in electrical
potential (depolarization) from its resting membrane potential in a
postsynaptic neuron (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Exercise
Any
and all activity involving the
generation of force by the activated muscles; exercise can be
quantified
mechanically as force, torque, work, power, or velocity of progression (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Exercise Electrocardiogram
A recording of the heart’s electrical activity during exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Exercise-Induced Arterial Hypoxemia
A decline in arterial partial pressure of oxygen and arterial oxygen saturation during maximal or near-maximal exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Exercise Intensity
A
specific level of muscular
activity that can be quantified in term s of power (energy expenditure
or work
performed per unit of time), the opposing force (e.g., free weights),
isometric
force sustained, or velocity of progression (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Exercise Physiology
Scientific study of how the body, from a functional standpoint, responds, adjusts, and adapts to acute exercise and chronic training (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Exercise Prescription
Individualization of the prescription of exercise duration, frequency, intensity, and mode (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Exercise Pressor Reflex
An afferent feedback mechanism to the cardiorespiratory areas of the medulla that originates in the skeletal muscles, mainly via mechanoreceptors and metaboreceptors (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Exercise-Recovery
The
performance of
light exercise during recovery from exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Exergonic Reaction
Chemical reaction that releases energy, a catabolic or oxidative reaction (Marieb, 1998)
Exhaustion
Inability to continue exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Exons
Amino acid-specifying informational sequences (separated by introns) in the genes of higher organisms (Marieb, 1998)
Expectancy Theory of
Motivation
A theory which states that it is not merely a specific goal, but rather the individual perception of that goal which motivates people; motivation depends upon the perceived attractiveness of the goal and the perceived probability of achieving that goal (Siff, 2003)
Expected
Sensory
Consequences
A construct in schema theory; the anticipated feedback sensations that should be received if the movement is correct (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Expiration
The process by which air is force out of the lungs through relaxation of the inspiratory muscles and elastic recoil of the lung tissue, which increases the pressure in the thorax (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Expiratory Reserve Volume
(ERV)
Maximal
volume of air expired from end-expiration (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Explosive Ballistic Muscle Tension
Tension
characteristic of movements in which maximal force is applied against a
relatively small resistance (such as a shot put); the motive force
reaches a
maximum quickly in the beginning and middle ranges of the movement, then begins to diminish (Siff,
2003)
Explosive Isometric Muscle Tension
Inherent to movements in which significant resistance is overcome such as when snatching or cleaning a barbell; a basic characteristic of these movements is the need to develop a large working force whose maximum is achieved isometrically at the end of the movement (Siff, 2003)
Explosive Reactive Ballistic Muscle Tension
Has similar characteristics to that of explosive ballistic muscle tension except for the regime of muscular work; the preliminary stretch phase is sharp and pronounced, after which there is an immediate change to concentric work (Siff, 2003)
Explosive Strength
The ability to produce maximal force in a minimal amount of time (Siff, 2003)
Extension
Movement that increases the angle of a joint, straightening a flexed knee (Marieb, 1998)
Extensive Methods
Training methods involving large training volume (Siff, 2003)
External Respiration
The process of brining air into the lungs and the resulting exchange of gas between the alveoli and the capillary blood (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
External Work
The work done by a body on another body (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Exteroceptor
Sensory end organ that responds to stimuli from the external world (Marieb, 1998)
Extracellular
Outside
the cell (Foss and Keteyian,
1998)
Extracellular Fluid
The 35%
to 40% of the water in the body that is outside the cells, including
interstitial fluid, blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and other
fluids (Wilmore
& Costill, 2004)
Extrafusal Fiber
A typical or normal muscle cell or fiber (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Extrasystole
Premature heart contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Extrinsic Neural Control
Redistribution of blood at the system or body level through neural mechanisms (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion
that takes place with the help of a carrier substance (Foss
and Keteyian, 1998)
Factor Analysis
A complex statistical procedure wherein a large number of separate tests are grouped into a smaller number of factors, each of which is thought to represent an underlying ability (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Factor Loading
In factor
analysis, the statistical values indicating the extent to which the
tests
measure the various factors (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Fartlek Training (Speed Play)
An informal interval-training-type method for endurance performance that involves alternating a fast and a slow training pace over natural terrain; neither the work nor relief intervals are precisely timed; it is the forerunner of the interval training system (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fascia
Layers of
fibrous tissue covering and separating muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Fascicle
Bundle of nerve or muscle fibers bound together by connective tissues (Marieb, 1998)
Fast Component (of recovery)
The initial, rapid decline in oxygen consumption at the start of recovery from exercise, usually lasting 3 to 4 minutes (reported in liters); formerly alactacid oxygen debt (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fast
Glycolysis
Chemical reaction in which pyruvate is converted to lactic acid, providing energy (ATP) at a fast rate compared with slow glycolysis (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Fast-Twitch
(FT) Fiber
A muscle fiber characterized by fast contraction time, high anaerobic capacity, and low aerobic capacity, all making the fiber suited for high-power output activities; also known as Type II fiber (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fat
A compound containing glycerol and fatty acids (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fat-Free
Mass
The mass (weight) of the body that is not fat, including muscle, bone, skin, and organs (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Fat-Soluble
Vitamins
A category of vitamins that are fat soluble and consequently are stored in the body in the liver and fatty tissues; need not be supplied each day but excessive accumulations can cause toxic effects; vitamins A, D, E, and K (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fatigue
A state of
discomfort and decreased efficiency resulting from prolonged or
excessive
exertion (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fatty Acids
Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group at one end; a constituent of fat (Marieb, 1998)
Feedback
Sensory information that results from movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Feedfoward Control
The sending of information ahead in time to ready a part of the system for incoming sensory feedback or for a future motor command (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Fiber
A slender, threadlike structure or filament (Marieb, 1998)
Fiber-Nerve Ratio (F:N)
The number of muscle fibers in a motor unit in relationship to the motor neuron axon that is innervating it (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fibrillation
Condition of rapid and irregular or out-of-phase heart contractions (Marieb, 1998)
Fibrin
Fibrous, insoluble protein formed during blood clotting (Marieb, 1998)
Fibrinolysis
The dissolving of a blood clot (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fibroblast
Young, actively mitotic cell that forms the fibers of connective tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Fibrocartilage
The most compressible type of cartilage; resistant to stretch; forms vertebral discs and knee joint cartilages (Marieb, 1998)
Fibrocyte
Mature fibroblast; maintains the matrix of fibrous types of connective tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Fibromyalgia Syndrome
A chronic syndrome that includes muscle pain as its dominant symptom but is also characterized by muscle weakness, migraine-type headaches, and depression (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Fibrosis
Proliferation of fibrous connective tissue called scar tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Fibrous Attachment
A type of muscle attachment that involves a tendon which blends into and are continuous with both the muscle sheaths and the connective tissue surrounding the bone (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Fibrous Joints
Bones joined by fibrous tissue; no joint cavity is present (Marieb, 1998)
Fick Equation
Expresses the relationship of cardiac output, oxygen uptake, and arteriovenous oxygen difference (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
First-Class Lever
A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum; a lever in which the fulcrum is between the effort force and the resistance force (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Fitness
The ability of the body to cope with a specific task under specific conditions (Siff, 2003)
Fitt’s
Law
Mathematical description of the speed-accuracy trade-off in which the average movement time is linearly related to Log2(2A/W) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Fixator
Muscle that immobilizes one or more bones; allowing other muscles to act from a stable base (Marieb, 1998)
Flaccid
Lacking muscular tonus (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Flavin
Adenine Dinucleotide
An acceptor and carrier of hydrogen from the Krebs cycle to the electron transport system (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Fleshy Attachment
Muscle fibers are directly affixed to the bone; usually over a wide area so that force is distributed rather than localized (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Flexibility
Refers to the range of movement of a specific joint with respect to a particular degree of freedom; each joint exhibits statically or dynamically some or many degrees of freedom (Siff, 2003)
Flexion
Movement that decreases the angle of the joint, e.g., bending the knee from a straight to an angled position (Marieb, 1998)
Flexor Reflex
Reflex initiated by a painful stimulus (actual or perceived); causes automatic withdrawal of the threatened body part from the stimulus (Marieb, 1998)
Floor
Effect
A limitation, imposed either by the scoring system or by physiological-psychological limits, that places a minimum on the score that a performer can achieve in a task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Fluid
Resistance
The resistive force encountered by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas) or by a fluid moving past or around an object or through an orifice; encountered by swimmers, sprinters, throwers, etc (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
(FSH)
Hormone produced by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovarian follicle production in females and sperm production in males (Marieb, 1998)
Food Guide Pyramid
A tool designed to provide guidance for evaluating nutrient adequacy of the diet; developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Foot-Pound (ft-lb)
A work unit; that is, application of a one-pound force through a distance of one foot (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Foramen
Hole or opening in a bone or between body cavities (Marieb, 1998)
Force
That which changes or tends
to change the state of
rest or motion in matter (SI unit:
Force Couple
Two forces that are equal in magnitude, act in opposite directions at a distance from an axis of rotation, and produces rotation with no translation (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Force Variability
The within-subject variability in a series of forces produced either in static or in dynamic contractions (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Foreperiod
The interval between a warning signal and the stimulus to respond (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Forgetting
The loss of memory, or the loss of the acquired capability for responding (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Forgetting and Reconstruction Hypothesis
A view of contextual interference that emphasizes the role of the construction of previously forgotten action plans as a basis of learning (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Form Drag
Resistance that results from the way in which a fluid presses against the front or rear of an object passing through it (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Formed Elements
Cellular portion of blood (Marieb, 1998)
Fossa
A depression, often an articular surface (Marieb, 1998)
Fovea
A pit (Marieb, 1998)
Fracture
A break in a bone (Marieb, 1998)
Frank-Starling Mechanism
A change in cardiac performance (i.e., stroke work) as a function of preload or stretch of the cardiac muscle prior to contraction (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Free Fatty Acids
The components of fat that are used by the body for metabolism (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Free Radicals
Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble the structure of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids (Marieb, 1998)
Free Weight
An object of known mass, not attached to a supporting or guiding structure, which is used for physical conditioning and competitive lifting (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Frequency
of Activation
A method of varying muscular force output; increasing the frequency of activation of motor units intensifies force output (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Friction
The resistive force encountered when one attempts to move two objects in contact with each other (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
Longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts (Marieb, 1998)
Fulcrum
The fixed point on which a lever moves when a force is applied (Marieb, 1998)
Functional Residual Capacity
(FRC)
Volume of air in the lungs at resting expiratory level (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Functional Resistance Machines
Training machines designed to provide resistance to various movements encountered in sport; simple pulley machines (Siff, 2003)
Functional Strength Training
Strength training involving intermuscular coordination between different muscle groups, intramuscular coordination of fibers within the same muscle group (number encoding, rate encoding, pattern encoding), facilitator and inhibitory reflexive processes, and motor learning (Siff, 2003)
Fusimotor Neurons
The nerve cells of the CNS whose thin axons innervate the intrafusal fibers of the muscle s pindles; also called gamma motor neurons (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Gain
The relationship between the amount of input to a system and the output produced by it; usually expressed as a ratio (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Gamma-Aminobutryic
Acid (GABA)
An inhibitory neurotransmitter substance (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Gamma Motor Neuron
A type of efferent nerve cell that innervates the ends of an intrafusal muscle fiber (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Gamma System (Gamma
The contraction of a muscle as a result of stretch the muscle spindle by way of stimulation of the gamma motor neurons (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Ganglion
Collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS (Marieb, 1998)
Gastric Emptying
The movement of food mixed with gastric secretions from the stomach into the duodenum (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Gearshift Analogy
An idea presented by Keele about the learning of motor programs, analogous to learning to shift gears in an automobile (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Gene
One of the biological units of heredity located in chromatin; transmits hereditary information (Marieb, 1998)
General
Adaptation
Syndrome
Hans Seyle’s theory that all animals exposed to periods of stress undergo three phases: initial alarm, resistance, and exhaustion (Siff, 2003)
General
Motor Ability
An early concept in which a single ability was thought to account for major portions of the individual differences in motor behavior (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
General
Physical
Preparation (GPP)
Training intended to provide balanced physical conditioning in endurance, strength, speed, flexibility, and other basic factors of fitness (Siff, 2003)
Generalized
Motor
Program
A motor program whose expression can be varied depending on the choice of certain parameters (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Genetic Code
Refers to the rules by which the base sequence of a DNA gene is translated into protein structures (amino acid sequences) (Marieb, 1998)
Genome
The complete set of chromosomes derived from one parent (the haploid genome); or, the two sets of chromosomes, i.e., one set from the egg, the other from the sperm (the diploid genome) (Marieb, 1998)
Genotype
One’s genetic makeup or genes (Marieb, 1998)
Gland
Organ specialized to secrete or excrete substances for further use in the body or for elimination (Marieb, 1998)
Glottis
Opening between the vocal cords in the larynx (Marieb, 1998)
Glucagon
Hormone formed by alpha cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas; raises the glucose level of blood (Marieb, 1998)
Glucocorticoids
Adrenal cortex hormones that increase blood glucose levels and aid the body in resisting long-term stressors (Marieb, 1998)
Gluconeogenesis
Formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules (Marieb, 1998)
Glucose
Principal blood sugar; a hexose (Marieb, 1998)
Glucose-Alanine Cycle
Glucose made in the liver from pyruvic acid that is carried there in the form of alanine; the alanine being originally formed in muscle by combining –NH2 radicals from metabolized amino acids with pyruvate (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Glycemic Index (GI)
Classifies a food by how high and how long it raises blood glucose (i.e., the food’s glycemic response) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Glycerol
A modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol) (Marieb, 1998)
Glycine
A simple amino acid, thought to be the main inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Glycoaminoglycan
Large carbohydrate molecules that compose ground substance in cartilage (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Glycogen
Main carbohydrate stored in animal cells; a polysaccharide (Marieb, 1998)
Glycogen-Loading (Supercompensation)
A diet or exercise-diet procedure that elevates muscle glycogen stores to concentrations two to three times normal (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Glycogen
Sparing
The diminished utilization of glycogen that results when other fuels are available (and are used) for activity; if, for instance, fat is used to a greater extent than usual, glycogen is “spared”; glycogen will thus be available longer before ultimately being depleted (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Glygogenesis
Formation of glycogen from glucose (Marieb, 1998)
Glycogenolysis
Breakdown of glycogen from glucose (Marieb, 1998)
Glycolipid
A lipid with one or more covalently attached sugars (Marieb, 1998)
Glycolysis
Breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid – an anaerobic process (Marieb, 1998)
Goal Setting
Described as a process whereby progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued with a defined criterion of task performance that increases the likelihood of perceived success (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Golgi Tendon Organs
Proprioceptors located in tendons, close to the point of skeletal muscle insertion; important to smooth onset and termination of muscle contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Gonadocorticoids
Sex hormones, primarily androgens, secreted by the adrenal cortex (Marieb, 1998)
Gonadotropins
Gonad-stimulating hormones produced by the anterior pituitary (Marieb, 1998)
Gradation
The ability of muscles to produce forces of varying strength; from very light to maximal force or tension (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Graded Muscle Response
Variations in the degree of muscle contraction by changing either the frequency or strength of the stimulus (Marieb, 1998)
Graded Potential
A local change in membrane potential that varies directly with the strength of the stimulus, and declines with distance (Marieb, 1998)
Ground Substance
Gel-like substance inside the cartilage matrix composed of glycoaminoglycans (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Growth Cartilage
Cartilage located in the epiphyseal (growth) plate, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions of muscle-tendon units where bone formation occurs in children (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Growth Hormone
Hormone that stimulates growth in general; produced in the anterior pituitary; also called somatotropin (STH) (Marieb, 1998)
Guidance
A series of techniques in which the behavior of the learner is limited or controlled by various means to prevent errors (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Gynecomastia
Male development of breasts; a side-effect of anabolic steroid abuse (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
H-Zone
The area in the center of the A-band where the cross-bridges are absent (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Habit
The acquired capability for moving; an unobservable internal state that underlies skilled performance (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Haldane Transformation
An equation allowing you to calculate the inspired air volume from expired air volume, or expired air volume from inspired air volume (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Half-Reaction Time
Method of estimating speed at which a chemical or physiological reaction or change occurs (e.g., in 30 seconds one-half of fast oxygen recovery component is completed) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
HDL Cholesterol
That portion of total plasma cholesterol that is transported or carried by high-density lipoproteins, higher levels of which carry an inverse relationship to the development of atherosclerosis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heart Attack
The blocking of blood flow to a portion of the heart muscle; also called myocardial infarction (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heart Block
Impaired transmission of impulses from atrium to ventricle resulting in dysrhythmia (Marieb, 1998)
Heart
Murmur
Abnormal heart sound (usually resulting from valve problems) (Marieb, 1998)
Heart
Rate
The heart’s rate of pumping (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Heart
Rate Reserve
The difference between the resting heart rate and the maximal heart rate (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heart
Rate Recovery
Period
The time it takes for heart rate to return to the resting rate following exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Heat
A form of energy (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heat
Cramps
Painful muscular contractions caused by prolonged exposure to environmental heat
Heat
Exhaustion
A condition of fatigue caused by prolonged exposure to environmental heat; may be associated with headache, nausea, and vomiting (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heat
Stroke
A disorder caused by overexposure to heat and characterized by high body (rectal) temperature, hot dry skin (usually flushed), and unconsciousness; it can be fatal (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heavy-Chain
Myosin
Proteins
Heavy polypeptide chains composed of a head (motor domain) which contains ATP and actin binding sites and a tail region to which the light chains are attached (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Helper
T Cell
Type of T lymphocyte that orchestrates cellular immunity by direct contact with other immune cells and by releasing chemicals called lymphokines; also helps to mediate the humoral response by interacting with B cells (Marieb, 1998)
Hematocrit
The percentage of erythrocytes to total blood volume (Marieb, 1998)
Hematoma
Mass of clotted blood that forms at an injured site (Marieb, 1998)
Hematopoiesis
Blood cell formation; hemopoiesis (Marieb, 1998)
Hematuria
Discharge of blood into urine (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Heme
Iron-containing pigment that is essential to oxygen transport by hemoglobin (Marieb, 1998)
Hemoconcentration
A relative (not absolute) increase in the cellular content per unit of blood volume, resulting from a reduction in plasma volume (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hemocytoblast
Bone marrow cell that gives rise to all the formed elements of blood (Marieb, 1998)
Hemodilution
An increase in blood plasma resulting in a dilution of the blood’s cellular contents (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hemodynamics
The study of the physical laws governing blood flow (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hemoglobin
Oxygen-transporting component of erythrocytes (Marieb, 1998)
Hemoglobin
Saturation
The amount of oxygen bound by each molecule of hemoglobin (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hemolysis
Rupture of erythrocytes (Marieb, 1998)
Hemorrhage
Loss of blood from the vessels by flow through ruptured walls; bleeding (Marieb, 1998)
Hemostasis
Stoppage of bleeding (Marieb, 1998)
Henry’s
Law
The amount of gas that a fluid will absorb under pressure varies in direct proportion to the partial pressure of the gas (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hernia
Abnormal protrusion of an organ or a body part through the containing wall of its cavity (Marieb, 1998)
Heterochronicity
The process in which specific events do not occur simultaneously or asynchronously, but rather in a complex sequence of distinct steps or actions, each of which lays the foundation for the next one (Siff, 2003)
Hick’s
Law
A mathematical statement that choice reaction time is linearly related to the Log2 of the number of stimulus-response alternatives, or to the amount of information that must be processed in order to choose a response (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Hierarchal
Control Model
The idea that with practice, the control of the response shifts systematically from attention-demanding higher levels to less attention-demanding motor program levels (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
High-Density
Lipoprotein
(HDL)
A cholesterol carrier regarded as a scavenger; theorized to remove cholesterol from the arterial wall and transport it to the liver to be metabolized (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
High-Energy
Phosphogens
Includes ATP, ADP, and CP – all of which contain one or two high-energy phosphate bonds that can be split to liberate usable energy (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hill’s
Equation for
Muscle Contraction
Establishes the functional connection between the force being exerted (F) and the maximal speed of muscular contraction (V) under isotonic conditions, in which case the speed of muscular contraction diminishes hyperbolically as the load increases; (Fo) is maximal strength, a and b are constants; (F + a)(V +b) = (Fo + a) (Siff, 2003)
Hilton’s
Law
Any nerve serving a muscle producing movement at a joint also innervates the joint itself and the skin over the joint (Marieb, 1998)
Homeostasis
A state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Hooke’s
Law
Elongation of an elastic tissue is directly proportional to applied force (Siff, 2003)
Hormones
Steroidal or amino acid-based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions (Marieb, 1998)
Hormone
Receptor
A region of the membranes of target cells that is specific to and can react with only one hormone; analogous to a lock and key mechanism (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hormone
Receptor Complex
Formed when a hormone binds with its receptor; this unit undergoes a conformational shift and it activates whereupon it binds to the cell’s nucleus to expose transcriptional units that code for the synthesis of specific proteins (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Human
Growth Hormone
(HGH)
See Growth Hormone
Humidity
Pertaining to the moisture in the air (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Humoral
Immune Response
Immunity conferred by antibodies present in blood plasma and other body fluids (Marieb, 1998)
Hyaline
Cartilage
The most abundant cartilage type in the body; provides firm support with some pliability (Marieb, 1998)
Hydraulic
Pressure
The force per unit area resulting from a vertical column of water of a certain height (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hydrogen
Bond
Weak bond in which a hydrogen atom forms a bridge between two electron-hungry atoms; an important intramolecular bond (Marieb, 1998)
Hydrogen
Ion (H+)
A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton) (Marieb, 1998)
Hydrophilic
Refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact with water and charged particles (Marieb, 1998)
Hydrophobic
Refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact only with nonpolar molecules (Marieb, 1998)
Hydrostatic
Pressure
Pressure of fluid in a system (Marieb, 1998)
Hydrostatic
Weighing
A method of measuring body volume in which a person is weighed while submerged underwater; the difference between the scale weight on land and the underwater weight (corrected for water density) equals body volume; this value must be further corrected to account for any air tapped in the lungs and other parts of the body (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hydroxyapatite
Proteins added to the bone matrix that become mineralized as calcium phosphate crystals (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Hydroxyl
Ion (
An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water (Marieb, 1998)
Hyperbaric
Environment
An environment, such as that underwater, involving high atmospheric pressure (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hypercapnia
High carbon dioxide levels in the blood (Marieb, 1998)
Hyperemia
An increase in blood flow into a tissue or organ; congested with blood (Marieb, 1998)
Hyperglycemic
Term used to describe hormones such as glucagons that elevate blood glucose level (Marieb, 1998)
Hyperinsulinemia
High levels of insulin in the blood (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hypernatremia
Increase sodium concentration in the blood (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hyperoxic
Breathing
Breathing oxygen-enriched gas mixtures during rest periods or following exercise; may positively affect some aspects of exercise performance but remains controversial (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Hyperplasia
Accelerated growth of tissue, e.g., in anemia, the bone marrow produces red blood cells at a faster rate (Marieb, 1998)
Hyperpolarization
An overshoot of the repolarization process so that the cell membrane potential goes below the normal resting level (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hyperpnea
Deeper and more vigorous breathing, but with unchanged respiratory rate, as during exercise (Marieb, 1998)
Hypertension
High blood pressure; usually defined as a systolic pressure of 140 mmHg or higher or a diastolic pressure of 90 mmHG or higher (Marieb, 1998) (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hyperthermia
Elevated body temperature; anything above a person’s normal resting body temperature (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hypertonic
Excessive, above normal, tone or tension (Marieb, 1998)
Hypertonic
Solution
A solution that has a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than the references cell; having greater osmotic pressure than the reference solution (blood plasma or interstitial fluid) (Marieb, 1998)
Hypertrophy
Increase in size of a tissue or organ independent of the body’s general growth (Marieb, 1998)
Hypertrophy
Training
Phase
A phase of strength training during general physical preparation intended to increase functional muscle bulk (Siff, 2003)
Hyperventilation
Increased depth and rate of breathing (Marieb, 1998)
Hypervolemia
An increased blood volume (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hypnosis
An induced state of hypersuggestibility in which positive suggestions relating to an athlete’s performance potential can be planted in the subconscious mind (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Hypobaric
Environment
An environment, such as that at high altitude, involving low atmospheric pressure (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Hypocapnia
Low carbon dioxide levels in the blood (Marieb, 1998)
Hypoglycemic
Term used to describe hormone such as insulin that decrease blood glucose level (Marieb, 1998)
Hyponatremia
Abnormally low concentrations of sodium ions in extracelluar fluid (Marieb, 1998)
Hypophysis
Another name for the pituitary gland; made up of the anterior lobe, called the adenohypophysis, and the posterior lobe, called the neurohypophysis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hypotension
Low blood pressure (Marieb, 1998)
Hypothalamus
That portion of the brain that exerts control over visceral activities, water balance, body temperature and sleep (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hypothermia
An abonormally low (less than 35ºC) body temperature (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Hypotonic
Below normal tone or tension (Marieb, 1998)
Hypotonic
Solution
A solution that is more dilute (containing fewer nonpenetrating solutes) than the reference cell; cells placed in hypotonic solutions plump up rapidly as water rushes into them (Marieb, 1998)
Hypoventilation
Decreased depth and rate of breathing (Marieb, 1998)
Hypoxia
Condition in which inadequate oxygen is available to tissues (Marieb, 1998)
Hypoxic
Vasoconstriction
The constriction of blood vessels in response to low levels of oxygen (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
I-Band
The area of a myofibril containing actin and bisected by a Z line (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
A state of optimal psychological and physiological efficiency in which the athlete employs only the amount of psychic and physical energy required to perform the task well (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Immune
System
A functional system whose components attack foreign substances or prevent their entry into the body (Marieb, 1998)
Immunity
Ability of the body to resist many agents (both living and nonliving) that can cause disease; resistance to disease (Marieb, 1998)
Immunocompetence
Ability of the body’s immune cells to recognize (by binding) specific antigens; reflects the presence of plasma membrane-bound receptors (Marieb, 1998)
Impact
Plyometrics
A type of plyometric training in which the concentric rebound is stimulated by contact with a surface or an object (such as depth jumps) (Siff, 2003)
Impaired
Fasting Glucose
A plasma glucose level of between 110 and 125 mg/dl following an 8-hour fast (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Imperfection
Training
Training to give an athlete the ability to cope with unexpected and sub-optimal conditions; training in imperfect conditions so as to prepare the athlete to prevent injury during unexpected conditions within sport (Siff, 2003)
Impulse
The product of the magnitude of a torque and its time of application (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Impulse-Momentum
Relationship
The relationship stating that the impulse is equal to the change in momentum (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Impulse-Timing
Model
A model of motor programming in which movement trajectory is controlled by impulses that determine the amount and timing of applied forces (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Impulse-Variability
Theory
A theory of rapid actions in which the variability in the muscular impulses leads directly to the variations or errors in movement control (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Impulsive
Training
Training with explosive reactive methods; see Plyometrics (Siff, 2003)
In
Vitro
In a test tube, glass, or artificial environment (Marieb, 1998)
In
Vivo
In the living body (Marieb, 1998)
Index
of Difficulty (ID)
In Fitt’s Law, the Log2 (2A/W) or the theoretical “difficulty” of movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Indirect
Calorimetry
A method of estimating energy expenditure by measuring respiratory gases (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Individual
Differences
Stable differences among individuals on some variable or task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Individual
Differences
of Learning
Differences between or among individuals in the amount or rate of acquisition of skills (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Individualization
Principle of Training
Training which suits one athlete may not necessarily suit another; training programs must be designed for individual athletes based upon individual peculiarities and requirements (Siff, 2003)
Inert
Having no action (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Inertial
Force
Additional force outside of gravity, such as a barbell or weight stack, that when accelerated exerts force upon the lifter (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Inertial
Training
Training in which strength is directed against the inertia of a load; two means of inertial training include the application of force against a horizontal wheel or suspended load or by spinning a heavy flywheel ergometer (Siff, 2003)
Infancy
The first year of life (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Infarct
Region of dead, deteriorating tissue resulting from a lack of blood supply (Marieb, 1998)
Inferior
(Caudal)
Pertaining to a position near the tail end of the long axis of the body
Inflammation
A nonspecific defensive response of the body to tissue injury; includes dilation of blood vessels and an increase in vessel permeability; indicated by redness, heat, swelling, and pain (Marieb, 1998)
Information
The content of a message that serves to reduce uncertainty (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Information-Processing
Viewpoint
The study of movement in which the human is viewed as a processor of information, focusing on storage, coding, retrieval, and transformation of information (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Inguinal
Pertaining to the groin region (Marieb, 1998)
Inherent
Feedback
That feedback normally received in the conduct of a particular task (also called intrinsic feedback) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Inhibiting
Factors
Hormones transmitted from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary that inhibit release of some other hormones (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Inhibitory
Postsynaptic
Potential (IPSP)
A transient decrease in electrical potential (hyperpolarization) in a postsynaptic neuron from its resting membrane potential (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Initial
Adjustment
Woodworth’s term for the initial open-loop portion of an aiming movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Initial
Conditions
A construct in schema theory; the nature of the task and environment prior to the production of a movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Innervation
Supply of nerves to a body part (Marieb, 1998)
Inorganic
Compound
Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases (Marieb, 1998)
Inorganic
Phosphate (Pi)
Simple form of phosphorus not in association with carbon, which would make it organic; a by product of ATP when it is split to ADP and Pi and used in resynthesizing ATP in the process of oxidative-phosphorylation (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Inotropic
Force of myocardial contraction; a shift in the Frank-Starling curve to the right or to the left (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
In-Phase
A coordination pattern in which two movement components oscillate in 0º relative phase (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Insertion
Movable attachment of a muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Inspiration
The active process involving the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles that expands the thoracic dimensions and thus the lungs; the expansion decreases pressure in the lungs, allowing outside air to rush in (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Inspiratory
Capacity
(IC)
Maximal volume of air inspired from resting expiratory level (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Inspiratory
Reserve
Volume (IRV)
Maximal volume of air inspired from end-inspiration (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Insulin
A hormone that enhances the carrier-mediated diffusion of glucose into tissue cells, thus lowering blood glucose levels (Marieb, 1998)
Insulin-Dependent
Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)
One of two major categories of diabetes mellitus that is caused by the inability of the pancreas to produce sufficient insulin as a result of failure of the beta-cells in the pancreas; this is also known as type-I diabetes (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Insulin
Resistance
A deficient target cell response to insulin (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Insulin
Sensitivity
An index of the effectiveness of a given insulin concentration on the disposal of glucose (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Integration
The process by which the nervous system processes and interprets sensory input and makes decisions about what should be done at each moment (Marieb, 1998)
Intensive
Methods
Strength training involving heavy loads and low volume (Siff, 2003)
Intercalated
Discs
Gap junctions connecting muscle cells of the myocardium (Marieb, 1998)
Intercept
(a)
One of the constants for linear empirical equations; the value on the Y-axis when X is zero (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Interference
Theory
A theory that forgetting is caused by interference from other learned materials (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Intermittent
Work
Exercises performed with alternate periods of relief, as opposed to continuous work (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Intermuscular
Coordination
Involves the synchronization or sequencing of actions between different muscle groups wihc are producing any given joint movements (Siff, 2003)
Internal
Respiration
Exchange of gases between blood and tissue fluid and between tissue fluid and cells (Marieb, 1998)
Internal
Work
The total work done resulting from the motion of all of the body’s segments (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Interneuron
(Internuncial Neuron)
A nerve cell located between
afferent (sensory) and
efferent (motor) nerve cells; it acts as a
“go-between” between incoming and
outgoing impulses; neurons originating and terminating wholly within
the spinal
cord that connect various segments of it; some are thought to be
involved in
the spinal generators (Foss and Keteyian, 1998) (Schmidt & Lee,
1999)
Interstitial
Cells (Leydig Cells)
Cells located in the loose connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules; they produce androgens (most importantly testosterone), which are secreted into the surrounding interstitial fluid (Marieb, 1998)
Interstitial
Fluid
Fluid between the cells (Marieb, 1998)
Interstitial
Lamellae
Incomplete lamellae that lie between intact osteons, filling the gaps between forming osteons, or representing the remnants of an osteon that has been cut through by bone remodeling (Marieb, 1998)
Intertrial
Interval
The interval of time between one movement and the next in the knowledge of results paradigm (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Interval
Sprinting
A method of training whereby an athlete might alternately sprint 50 m and job 60 m for distances of 4 to 5 km (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Interval
Training
A system of physical conditioning in which the body is subjected to short but regularly repeated periods of work stress interspersed with adequate periods of relief (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Intervertebral
Discs
Discs of fibrocartilage between vertebrae (Marieb, 1998)
Intracapsular
Ligament
Ligament located within and separate from the articular capsule of a synovial joint (Marieb, 1998)
Intracellular
Fluid
Fluid within a cell (Marieb, 1998)
Intrafusal
Fibers
Muscle cells (fibers) that house the muscle spindles (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Intramuscular
Coordination
The control of muscle tension by activating or deactivating certain numbers of fibers (number encoding), modifying the firing rate of active fibers (rate encoding), and the synchronization or sequencing of firing of the different types of muscle fibers (pattern encoding) (Siff, 2003)
Intramuscular
Glycogen
Complex carbohydrate stored within muscle cells; the glucose subunits are used as a ready source of energy for muscle metabolism (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Intrinsic
Motivation
A desire to be competent and self-determining; the athlete is a self-starter and does not require external motivation to have a desire to compete (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Invariant
Characteristic
The relationship between joint position and joint torque established by the central nervous system (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Inverse
Dynamics
An analytical approach calculating forces and moments based on the accelerations of the object (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Inverted-U
Theory
Arousal facilitates performance up to an optimal level, beyond which further increases in arousal are associated with reduced performance; a description of the relationship between arousal and performance that resembles an inverted U when graphed (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Involuntary
Muscle
Muscles not ordinarily under control of will (Marieb, 1998)
Involuntary
Nervous
System
The autonomic nervous system (Marieb, 1998)
Ion
Atom with a positive or negative electric charge (Marieb, 1998)
Ionic
Bond
Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms (Marieb, 1998)
Ipsilateral
Situated on the same side (Marieb, 1998)
Iron
A mineral found in the heme groups of red blood cells and tin the cytochromes of the mitochondrion; very important to oxygen transport, metabolism, and energy levels (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Irritability
Ability to respond to stimuli (Marieb, 1998)
Ischemia
Local decrease in blood supply (Marieb, 1998)
Isoforms
Proteins that have the same basic make-up but also slight modifications that alter their function (e.g., in muscle both heavy- and light-chain myosin exist) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Isokinetic
Muscle Action
Muscle action in which the tension developed by the muscle while shortening at a constant speed is theoretically maximal over the full range of motion (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Isometric
Muscle Action
Muscle action in which the muscle does not shorten (the load is too heavy) but internal tension increases (Marieb, 1998)
Isotonic
Contraction
Contraction in which muscle tension remains constant and the muscle shortens (Marieb, 1998)
Isotonic
Solution
A solution with a concentration of nonpenetrating solutes equal to that found in the reference cell (Marieb, 1998)
Joint
(articulation)
The junction of two or more bones (Marieb, 1998)
Joint
Kinesthetic
Receptor
Receptor that provides information on joint position and motion (Marieb, 1998)
Karvonen
Method
The calculation of training heart rate by adding a given percentage of the maximal heart rate by adding a given percentage of the maximal heart rate reserve to the resting heart rate; this method gives an adjusted heart rate that is approximately equivalent to the desired percentage of VO2 max (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Ketones
(Ketone Bodies)
Fatty acid metabolites; strong organic acids (Marieb, 1998)
Ketosis
Abnormal condition during which an excess of ketone bodies is produced (Marieb, 1998)
Killer
T Cell
Cytotoxic T cell (Marieb, 1998)
Kilocalories
(kcal)
See Calorie
Kilogram-Meters
(kg-m)
A unit of work (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Kilojoules
(kJ)
A unit of energy (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Kinematic
Feedback
Feedback about the movement characteristics or movement pattern produced (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Kinesiology
Scientific study of human movement; includes such aspects of study as exercise physiology, motor learning/control, and biomechanics (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Kinesthesis
(Kinesthetic Sense)
Awareness of where the body and its components are in space and time (Siff, 2003)
Kinetic
Energy
The energy of motion or movement, e.g., the constant movement of atoms, or the push given to a swinging door that sets it into motion (Marieb, 1998)
Kinetic
Feedback
Feedback about the force characteristics of a movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Knowledge
of Performance
(KP)
Augmented feedback related to the nature of the movement produced (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Knowledge
of Results
(KR)
Augmented feedback related to the nature of the result produced in terms of the environmental goal (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
KR
Delay
The interval between the production of a movement and the presentation of KR (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Krebs
Cycle
Aerobic metabolic pathway occurring within mitochondria, in which food metabolites are oxidized and CO2 is liberated, and coenzymes are reduced (Marieb, 1998)
Kyphotic
A rounded spine, as seen in the thoracic spine (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
L-Carnitine
A substance important for fatty acid metabolism because it assists in the transfer of fatty acids from the cytosol (the fluid portion of the cytoplasm, exclusive organelles) across the inner mitochondrial membrane for beta-oxidation (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
L-Tryptophan
An essential amino acid that has been proposed to increase aerobic endurance performance through its effects on the central nervous system; it theoretically acts as an analgesic and delays fatigue (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Lactacid
Oxygen Debt
That portion of the recovery oxygen used to remove accumulated lactic acid from the blood following exercise; the slow recovery phase (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Lactate
The salt of lactic acid (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Lactate
Dehydrogenase (LDH)
A key glycolytic enzyme involved in the conversion of pyruvate to lactate (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Lactate
Threshold
The point during exercise
where a nonlinear
increase in blood lactate occurs (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Lactic
Acid
Product of anaerobic metabolism, especially in muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Lactic
Acid System (LA
System)
An anaerobic energy system in which ATP is manufactured when glucose (sugar) is broken down to lactic acid; high-intensity efforts requiring 1 to 3 minutes before energy (ATP) is primarily drawn from this system; more commonly referred to as anaerobic glycolysis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Lacunae
A small space, cavity, or depression; lacunae in bone or cartilage are occupied by cells (Marieb, 1998)
Lamella
A layer, such as of bone matrix in Haversian Systems of compact bones (Marieb, 1998)
Lamina
A thin layer or flat plate; the portion of a vertebra between the transverse process and the spinous process (Marieb, 1998)
Latent
Period
Period of time between stimulation and the onset of muscle contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Law
of Practice
The common finding that the log of the performance measure tends to change linearly with the log of the amount of practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
LDL
Cholesterol
That portion of total plasma cholesterol that is transported or carried by low-density lipoproteins, higher levels of which carry a direct relationship to the development of atherosclerosis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Lead-Up
Tasks
Certain tasks or activities that are typically presented to prepare learners for a more important or more complex task or activity (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Lean
Body Mass (Weight)
The body weight minus the weight of the body fat (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Learning
A set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for skill (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Learning
Curve
A label sometimes applied to the performance curve, in the belief that the changes in performance mirror changes in learning (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Learning
Score
A difference score, computed as the difference between the initial and final levels of performance; sometimes used in computing the changes in performance as a result of practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Learning
Variable
An independent variable that affects learning (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Left
Bundle Branch
Part of the conduction system of the heart; receives the impulse from the AV bundle and passes it along into the Purkinje Fibers (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Length-Tension
Relationship
The amount of force that a muscle can exert is related to its length; peak force production is usually seen at resting length or slightly greater than resting length (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Leukocytes
White blood cells; formed elements involved in body protection that take part in inflammatory and immune responses (Marieb, 1998)
Leukocytosis
An increase in the number of leukocytes (white blood cells); usually the result of a microbiological attack on the body (Marieb, 1998)
Leukopenia
Abnormally low white blood cell count (Marieb, 1998)
Leukopoiesis
The production of white blood cells (Marieb, 1998)
Lever
A rigid or semirigid body that, when subjected to a force whose line of action does not pass through its pivot point, exerts force on any object impeding its tendency to rotate; a mechanism for doing work that consists of a fulcrum and two eccentric forces (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Lever
System
Consists of a lever (bone), effort (muscle action), resistance (weight of object to be moved) and fulcrum (joint) (Marieb, 1998)
Ligament
Band of regular fibrous tissue that connects bones (Marieb, 1998)
Linear
Pertaining to a straight line (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Lipid
Organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol (Marieb, 1998)
Lipogenesis
The process of converting protein into fatty acids (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Lipolysis
The breakdown of stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids (Marieb, 1998)
Lipoprotein
Lipase
The enzyme that breaks down triglycerides to free fatty acids and glycerol, allowing the free fatty acids to enter the cells for use as a fuel or for storage (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Lipoproteins
The proteins that carry the blood lipids (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Loadless
Training
A training technique involving maximal voluntary muscle contractions against little or no resistance (Siff, 2003)
Local
Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a body segment about its own center of mass (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Lock-And-Key
Theory
Theory stating that the receptor is the lock and the hormone is the key (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Log2
(N)
The power to which the base 2 must be raised to achieve N (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Longevity
The length of a person’s life (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Long-Loop
Reflex
A stretch reflex with a latency of from 50 to 80 milliseconds, modified by instruction, and mediated in higher brain centers (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Long-Term
Memory
A functionally limitless memory store for abstractly coded information, facts, concepts, and relationships; presumably storage for movement patterns (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Longitudinal
Fiber
Splitting
Development of new muscle fibers from existing ones as a result of intense chronic “weight training”; shown only in experimental animals (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Longitudinal
Research
Design
A research design in which subjects are tested initially and then one or more times later to directly measure changes over time resulting from a given intervention (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Longitudinal
Tubules
Portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that run parallel to the muscle myofibrils and terminate in the outer vesicles (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Lordotic
A slightly arched back as seen in the lumbar spine (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Low-Density
Lipoprotein
(LDL)
A cholesterol carrier theorized to be responsible for depositing cholesterol in the arterial wall (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Lower
Body (Gynoid) Obesity
Obesity that follows the typically female pattern of fat storage, in which fat is stored primarily on the lower body, particularly in the hips, buttocks, and thighs (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Lumbar
Portion of the back between the thorax and the pelvis (Marieb, 1998)
Lumbar
Vertebrae
The five vertebrae of the lumbar region of the vertebral column, commonly called the small of the back (Marieb, 1998)
Luteinizing
Hormone (LH)
Anterior pituitary hormone that aids maturation of cells in the ovary and triggers ovulation in females; in males, causes the interstitial cells of the testis to produce testosterone (Marieb, 1998)
Lymph
Protein-containing
fluid transported by lymphatic vessels (Marieb, 1998)
Lymphatic System
System
consisting of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs
and
tissues; drains excess tissue fluid from the extracellular space and
provides a
site for immune surveillance (Marieb, 1998)
Lymphocyte
Agranular white
blood cell that arises from bone marrow and becomes functionally mature
in the
lymphoid organs of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Lymphokines
Proteins involved in cell-mediated immune responses that enhance immune and inflammatory responses (Marieb, 1998)
M-Bridge
(M-band)
That portion of the sarcomere where adjacent myosin filaments anchor to each other (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Macrocycle
Refers to a single competitive season and is comprised of mesocycles occupying a period of many months (Siff, 2003)
Macroelectric Cellular Stimulation (MACS)
Electric
current exceeding one milliamp applied to the body as a physiological
stressor
which in the short term causes the typical alarm response described by Selye (Siff, 2003)
Macrominerals
The
minerals of
which the body needs more than 100 mg per day (Wilmore
& Costill,
2004)
Macromolecules
Large,
complex
molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 amino acids (Marieb, 1998)
Magnet Effect
Identified by von Holst as the tendency of one effector’s rhythmic oscillation to become interdependent with another oscillating limb (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Maintenance Tendency
Identified
by von Holst as the
tendency of one effector to
maintain an independent rhythmic oscillation while another effector is
oscillating (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Marijuana
A so-called recreational drug that is generally ergolytic (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Masculinization
A side-effect for women abusing anabolic steroids; the adoption of male physical characteristics including upper body muscularity, decreased body fat from the breasts and hips, deepening of the voice, cessation of menstrual cycles, and increased facial hair (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Masking Agent
Such as diuretics, dilute urine specimens and make it difficult to obtain a positive test for another banned substance, such as anabolic steroids; labs can now test for masking agents as well as concentrate the effected urine specimens and adjust the pH so a proper drug screen can be performed (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A
model of human needs developed by
Abraham Maslow; the most basic human needs (such as physiological and
survival
needs) need to be satisfied before subsequent needs (such as social
needs)
begin to exert influence on a person (Siff, 2003)
Mass
The quantity of matter of an object that is reflected in its inertia (SI unit: kilogram) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Massed Practice
A sequence of practice and rest periods in which the rest time is much less than the practice time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Maturation
The process by which the body takes on the adult form and becomes fully functional; it is often defined by the system or function being considered (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Maximal Aerobic Power
See Maximal Oxygen Consumption
Maximal Expiratory
Ventilation
The highest ventilation that can be achieved during exhaustive exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Maximal Heart Rate Reserve
The difference between maximal heart rate and resting heart rate (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Maximal Oxygen Consumption
(max VO2)
The maximal rate at which oxygen can be consumed per minute; the power or capacity of the aerobic or oxygen system (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Maximal
Oxygen Uptake
The greatest amount of oxygen that can be used at the cellular level for the entire body (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Maximal
Plyometrics
A type of plyometric training in which low-repetition activities are done where the intensity of the depth jump or rebound exercise is such that maximal or near-maximal rebound tension is produced in the relevant muscles (Siff, 2003)
Maximum
Heart Rate
The highest heart rate value attainable during an all-out effort to the point of exhaustion (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Maximum
Strength
A measure of maximal voluntary isometric muscular force which can be produced without a time limit or a limit to the amount of weight lifted (Siff, 2003)
Maximum Voluntary Contraction
(MVC)
The greatest force output that an individual can generate from a muscle group through only volitional control (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
McCloy Method of Training
The use
of a weight 50% of one’s 10RM for 10 repetitions, followed by
a weight equal to
one’s 10RM for 10 reps, and finally a load 75% of
one’s 10RM for 10 reps (Siff,
2003)
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
The average blood pressure throughout the cardiac cycle (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Mechanical Advantage (Power
Lever)
Condition that occurs when the load is close to the fulcrum and the effort is applied far from the fulcrum; allows a small effort exerted over a relatively large distance to move a large load over a small distance; the ratio of the effort arm to the resistance arm of a lever (Marieb, 1998) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Mechanical Disadvantage (Speed
Lever)
Condition
that occurs when the load is far from the fulcrum and the effort is
applied
near the fulcrum; the effort applied must be greater than the load to
be moved
(Marieb, 1998)
Mechanical Energy
The energy directly involved in moving matter; e.g., in bicycle riding, the legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals (Marieb, 1998)
Mechanical Load
Stimulates bone and muscle growth; dependent upon the magnitude of the load (intensity, the rate (speed) of loading, the direction of the forces, and the volume of loading (repetitions) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Mechanoreceptor
Receptor
sensitive to mechanical pressure such as touch, sound, or exerted by
muscle
contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Medial
Toward
the midline of the body (Marieb, 1998)
Medial Lemniscal System
The pathway to the cerebral cortex for discriminative touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception (Marieb, 1998)
Median (Midsagittal) Plane
Specific
sagittal plane that lies
exactly in the midline
(Marieb, 1998)
Medulla Oblongata
That portion or area of the brain continuous above with the pons and below with the spinal cord and containing the cardiorespiratory control area (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Membrane
A thin
layer of tissue that covers a surface or divides a space or organ (Foss
and Keteyian, 1998)
Membrane Potential
Voltage
across the plasma membrane (Marieb, 1998)
Memory Cells
Members
of T cell and B cell clones that provide for immunologic memory
(Marieb, 1998)
Memory Trace
A construct
in
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Long
nucleotide strands that reflect the exact nucleotide sequences of the
genetically active DNA and carry the message of the latter (Marieb,
1998)
Menarche
The onset of menstruation (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Menses
The monthly flow of blood from the genital tract of women (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Menstrual Cycle
The cycle of uterine changes, averaging 28 days and consisting of the menstrual (flow) phase, the proliferative phase, and secretory phase (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Menstrual Dysfunction
Disruption of the normal menstrual cycle; it includes oligomenorrhea, primary amenorrhea, and secondary amenorrhea (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Menstruation
The process or an instance of discharging the meses (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Mental Imagery
A cognitive psychological skill in which the athlete uses all the senses to create a mental experience of an athletic performance (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Mental Practice
A practice method in which performance on the task is imagined or visualized without overt physical practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Mesencephalic Preparation
A surgical preparation in which the spinal cord is cut at the mid-brain, essentially separating higher centers from the spinal cord (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Mesocycle
Refers to a number of microcycles which serve as a recurring unit over a period of several weeks or months within a macrocycle (Siff, 2003)
Mesomorphy
A body type component characterized by a square body with hard, rugged, and prominent musculature (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
MET (Metabolic Equivalent)
The amount of oxygen
required per minute under
resting, sitting conditions; it is approximately 3.5 mL
of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute (Foss and
Keteyian,
1998)
Metabolic Rate
Energy
expended by the body per unit time (Marieb, 1998)
Metabolic Syndrome
A term that has been used to link coronary artery disease, hypertension, type II diabetes, and upper body obesity to insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia; this syndrome has also been referred to as syndrome X and the civilization syndrome (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Metabolic System
A system
of biochemical reactions that cause the formation of waste products
(metabolites) and the manufacture of ATP; for example, the ATP-PC,
anaerobic
glycolysis, and oxygen systems (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Metabolism
Sum
total of the
chemical reactions occurring in the body cells (Marieb, 1998)
Metabolite
Any substance produced by a metabolic reaction (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Metaboreceptors
Peripheral nerve endings primarily activated by metabolic changes (e.g., pH) in and around contracting skeletal muscle (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Metastability
Refers to a state which persists until a disturbance happens to move it to another state of stability (Siff, 2003)
Microcycle
Refers to a number of training sessions which form a recurrent unit with a period of several days within a mesocycle (Siff, 2003)
Microelectric Cellular Stimulation (MICS)
Electric
current
below one milliamp applied to the body for restorative purposes (Siff,
2003)
Microfibril
The parallel arrangement of filaments within a collagen fiber (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Microfilaments
Thin
strands of the
contractile protein actin (Marieb, 1998)
Microgravity
An environment in which the body experiences a reduced gravitational force (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Microminerals (Trace Elements)
The minerals of which the body needs less than 100 mg per day (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Midsagittal (Medial) Plane
Specific
sagittal plane that lies
exactly in the midline (Marieb,
1998)
Millimole
One
thousandth of a
mole (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Mineralcorticoid
Steroid hormone of the adrenal cortex that regulates mineral metabolism and fluid balance (Marieb, 1998)
Minerals
Inorganic
chemical compounds found in nature; salts (Marieb, 1998)
Minimal Essential Strain (MES)
The threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Minimax Principle
Using the minimum effort to achieve the maximum results, preferably in the least amount of time (Siff, 2003)
Minute Ventilation
The amount of air inspired (Vi) or expired (Ve) in one minute; usually it refers to the expired amount (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Miometric Muscle Action
See
Concentric
Muscle Action (Siff, 2003)
Mitochondria
Cytoplasmic
organelles responsible for ATP generation for cellular activities
(Marieb,
1998)
Mitochondrial Oxidative Enzymes
Oxidative
enzymes
located in the mitochondria (Wilmore & Costill,
2004)
Mixed Nerves
Nerves
containing the processes of motor and sensory neurons; their impulses
travel to
and from the CNS (Marieb, 1998)
Mode
Type of exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Modeling
A technique for demonstrating the learning task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Modular
A view of
individual differences that organizes brain activities in terms of
functions
(such as timekeeping) rather than tasks (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
Mole
The
gram-molecular weight or gram-formula weight of a substance (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Molecule
Particle
consisting
of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds (Marieb, 1998)
Moment
See Torque (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Moment Arm
The perpendicular distance of the line of action of a force to the axis of rotation (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Moment of Force
See Torque (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Moment of Inertia
The
resistance of a body to angular acceleration (Hamill
& Knutzen 2003)
Monocyte
Large
single-nucleus
white blood cell; agranular
leukocyte (Marieb, 1998)
Monokines
Chemical
mediators that enhance the immune response; secreted by macrophages
(Marieb,
1998)
Monosaccharide
Literally,
one
sugar; building block of carbohydrates; e.g., glucose (Marieb, 1998)
Monosynaptic Stretch Reflex
A segmental
reflex produced by stretch of a muscle and its spindles connecting monosynaptically with the alpha motorneurons
of the same muscle; it has a latency of about 30 to 50 milliseconds in
humans (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
Monotonic Increase
Continual
increase
without any decrease (Siff, 2003)
Monounsaturated
Fatty acids containing one double bond; generally do not exert an effect on cholesterol (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Morphology
The form and structure of the body (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Motivation
An internal state that tends to direct or energize the system toward a goal (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motive To Achieve Success (MAS)
The desire to attain victory or success; an athlete with MAS tends to heighten effort in response to the challenge and not perceive any threat; playing to win (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Motive To Avoid Failure (MAF)
The desire to protect one’s ego and self-esteem; an athlete with MAF may reduce effort because he or she fears failure and the threat to self-esteem, playing not to lose (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Motor Areas
Functional
areas in the cerebral cortex that control voluntary motor functions
(Marieb,
1998)
Motor Behavior
An area of study stressing primarily the principles of human skilled movement generated at a behavior level of analysis (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor Control
An area
of study dealing with the understanding of the neural, physical, and
behavioral
aspects of movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor Development
A field of study concerning the changes in motor behavior occurring as a result of growth, maturation, and experience (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor End Plates
Troughlike part of a muscle fiber’s sarcolemma that helps form the neuromuscular junction (Marieb, 1998)
Motor
Engrams
Memorized motor patterns that are stored in the motor area of the brain (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Motor
Learning
The process of programming the brain/central nervous system to be able to carry out specific movement tasks; a set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for motor skill (Siff, 2003) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor
Memory
The memory for movement or motor information (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor Nerves
Nerves
that carry impulses leaving the brain and spinal cord, and destined for
effectors (Marieb, 1998)
Motorneuron Pools
Collections of alpha motorneuron cell bodies in the gray matter of the spinal cord that serve motor units in the same or anatomically-related muscles (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor Program
An abstract representation that, when initiated, results in the production of a coordinated movement sequence (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Motor Reaction Time
The
interval between the first change in EMG and the movement’s
initiation (Schmidt
& Lee, 1999)
Motor Unit
A
motor neuron and
all the muscle cells it stimulates (Marieb, 1998)
Movement
Changes in joint angles, the position of the entire body, or both (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Movement Outcome
A construct in schema theory; the result of the movement in the environment, usually signaled by intrinsic feedback or KR (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Movement Time (MT)
The
interval between
the initiation of a movement and its termination (Schmidt
& Lee,
1999)
Multiaxial Joint
A joint which allows movement about all three perpendicular axes that define space; as seen in the shoulder and hip ball-and-socket joints (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Multiple Correlation
A statistical procedure in which the weightings of predictor variables are adjusted so that their sum correlates maximally with some criterion variable (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Multiple Motor Unit Summation
The varying of the number of motor units contracting within a muscle at any given time (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Multistability
A system that can exhibit stability in not one, but a variety of different states (Siff, 2003)
Muscle Bundle
A fasciculus (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Muscle Buffering Capacity
The muscles’ ability to tolerate the acid that accumulates in them during anaerobic glycolysis (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Muscle Fiber
A
muscle cell (Marieb, 1998)
Muscle Force
Force generated by biochemical activity, or the stretching of noncontractile tissue that tends to draw the opposite ends of a muscle toward each other (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Muscle Power
The product of the net muscle moment and the angular velocity of the joint (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Muscle Spindle (Neuromuscular Spindle)
Encapsulated
receptor found in skeletal muscle that is sensitive to stretch (Marieb,
1998)
Muscle Spindle Reflex
Discharge of impulses from muscle spindles due to stretch, which results in CNS reflex maintenance of active muscle tonus in the same muscles (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Muscle Strength
The force
or tension that a muscle or group of muscles can exert against a
resistance in
one maximal effort (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Muscle Tension
The
force exerted by
a contracting muscle on some object (Marieb, 1998)
Muscle Tone
Sustained
partial contraction of a muscle in response to stretch receptor inputs;
keeps
the muscle healthy and ready to act (Marieb, 1998)
Muscle Twitch
The
response of a muscle to a single brief threshold stimulus (Marieb, 1998)
Muscle Wisdom
The
process in which the activation discharge rate of alpha motor neurons
is
modulated by the central nervous system to optimize force production by
skeletal muscle during sustained muscle action (Siff,
2003)
Muscular Dystrophy
A
group of inherited
muscle-destroying diseases (Marieb, 1998)
Muscular Endurance
The
ability of a muscle or muscle group to perform repeated contractions
against a
light load for an extended period of time (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Muscular System
The organ system consisting of the skeletal muscles of the body and their connective tissue attachments (Marieb, 1998)
Myelin Sheath
Fatty
insulating sheath that surrounds all but the smallest nerve fibers
(Marieb,
1998)
Myelination
The process of acquiring a myelin sheath (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Myocardial Infarction (MI)
Condition
characterized by dead tissue areas in the myocardium; caused by
interruption of
blood supply to the area (Marieb, 1998)
Myocardium
Layer
of the heart wall composed of cardiac muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Myofibril
Rodlike bundle of contractile filaments (myofilaments) found in muscle cells (Marieb, 1998)
Myofilament
Filament
that constitutes myofibrils consisting of two types: actin and myosin
(Marieb,
1998)
Myogenic Factors
Substances found within muscle fibers that regulate the properties specific to the fiber type, such as contractile speed and power production during contraction (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Myoglobin
Oxygen-binding
pigment in muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Myogram
A graphic
recording of mechanical contractile activity produced by an apparatus
that
measures muscle contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Myokinase (MK)
Enzyme found in muscle cells that catalyzes (speeds) the reformation of ATP in the presence of ADP
Myosin
One of
the principle contractile proteins found in muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Myosin-ATPase
Myofibrillar adenosine triphosphatase; an enzyme found in myosin that catalyzes ATP degradation to ADP and Pi; a marker for muscle fiber contraction speed (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Myosin Heavy Chain (MHC)
A component of myosin that determines its contractile characteristics; occurs in three isoforms (type I, IIa, and IIx) (Siff, 2003)
Natural
Killer (NK) Cells
Defensive cells that can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells before the immune system is activated (Marieb, 1998)
Nebulin
A giant protein that coextends with actin and appears to play a regulatory role in mediating actin and myosin interactions (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Necrosis
Death of a cell or group of cells in contact with living tissue (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Needs
Analysis
An assessment of factors that determine the specific training program appropriate for an individual (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Negative
Energy Balance
A condition in which less energy (food) is taken in than is given off; body weight decreases as a result (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Negative
Feedback
Mechanism
A system of regulatory control where a change from normal is detected and an adjustment is effected until normal levels are reestablished (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Negative
Transfer
The loss in capability for one task as a result of practice or experience in some other task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Negative
Work
Force times distance applied in the same direction as the pull of gravity assisted by gravity; the work done on a system when the loading torque is greater than the torque exerted by the muscle (Foss and Keteyian, 1998) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Nerve Cell
A
neuron (Marieb,
1998)
Nerve Conduction Velocity
The speed
of travel of nerve impulses along nerve axons or fibers; faster for
large
fibers and faster still for myelinated (insulated) ones (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Nerve Fiber
Axon
of a neuron
(Marieb, 1998)
Nerve Impulse
A
self-propagating
wave of depolarization; also called an action potential (Marieb, 1198)
Nerve Plexuses
Interlacing
nerve networks that occur in the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral
regions
and primarily serve the limbs (Marieb, 1998)
Nervous System
Fast-acting
control system that triggers muscle contraction or gland secretion
(Marieb,
1998)
Net Oxygen Cost
The amount of oxygen, above resting values, required to perform a given amount of work; also referred to as net cost of exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Neuroendocrinology
Describes the close relationship of chemical substances that have both neural and hormone functions; some neurotransmitters have endocrine functions (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Neurohypophysis
The posterior
lobe of the pituitary gland; so called because of its direct connection
with
the hypothalamus of the brain; secretes ADH and oxytocin (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
Neuromuscular Efficiency
Refers to the skill with which one executes a given movement and relates to how efficiently and intensively one recruits muscle fibers in the appropriate muscle groups to produce the movement pattern accurately and powerfully (Siff, 2003)
Neuromuscular Junction
Region
where a motor neuron comes into close contact with a skeletal muscle
cell
(Marieb, 1998)
Neuron
Cell of
the nervous system specialized to generate and transmit nerve impulses
(Marieb,
1998)
Neuron Cell Body
The
biosynthetic
center of a neuron; also called the perikaryon,
or
soma (Marieb, 1998)
Neuronal Pools
Functional
groups of
neurons that process and integrate information (Marieb, 1998)
Neuropeptides
A class
of neurotransmitters including beta-endorphins and enkephalins
(which act as euphorics
and reduce perception of
pain) and gut-brain peptides (Marieb, 1998)
Neurotransmitter
Chemical released by neurons that may, upon binding to receptors of neurons or effector cells, stimulate or inhibit them (Marieb, 1998)
Neutral
Equilibrium
The state of a body in which the body will remain in a location if displaced from another location (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Neutral Fats
Consist
of fatty acid chains and glycerol; also called triglycerides or triacylglycerols; commonly known
as oils when liquid
(Marieb, 1998)
Neutralizers
Muscles counteracting the unwanted actions of other muscles by tending to produce opposite movements (Siff, 2003)
Neutrophil
Most
abundant type of white blood cell (Marieb, 1998)
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
An acceptor and carrier of hydrogen from various reaction sites in the cytosol and Krebs Cycle to the electron transport system (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Nicotine
A central
nervous system stimulant found in tobacco products that is proposed to
have
ergogenic properties (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Nicotinic Receptors
Acetylcholine-binding receptors of all autonomic postganglionic neurons and skeletal muscle neuromuscular junctions (Marieb, 1998)
Nitrogen
Balance
A monitor of daily protein balance; a positive nitrogen balance means that nitrogen intake from protein is equal to or slightly greater than nitrogen loss (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Nitrogen
Narcosis
A condition caused by breathing air underwater at depths where the partial pressure of nitrogen is elevated, causing the central nervous system to experience a narcotic-like effect and leading to distortions in judgment and sometimes to serious injury or death; also known as rapture of the deep (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Nodes
of Ranvier
Those areas on a myelinated nerve that are devoid of a myelin sheath (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Non-Functional
Resistance Machines
Training machines that provide a useful supplementary role to free weight and functional machine training, but in general are unable to provide the same degree of multi-dimensional, full range neuromuscular and musculoskeletal training as free weights and functional machines (Siff, 2003)
Non-Impact
Plyometrics
A type of plyometric training in which the concentric rebound is not stimulated by contact with a surface or object, but rather by the eccentric action of the muscles that produce a movement (such as a rapidly-retracted blow in boxing or martial arts) (Siff, 2003)
Non-Insulin-Dependent
Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)
One of two major categories of diabetes mellitus that is caused by the ineffectiveness of insulin to facilitate the transport of glucose into the cells and is a result of insulin resistance; this is also known as type-II diabetes (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Nonessential
Amino Acids
The 11 or 12 amino acids that the body synthesizes (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Nonlinear
Dynamics
A theory by Ilya Prigogine that maintains that order can occur spontaneously or by chance through a process of self-organization (Siff, 2003)
Nonresponders
Individuals who show little or no improvement compared with others who undergo the same training program (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Nonshivering Thermogenesis
The stimulation of metabolism by the sympathetic nervous system to generate more metabolic heat (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Nonsteroid Hormones
Hormones derived from protein, peptides, or amino acids that cannot easily cross cell membranes (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Norepinephrine
A
catecholamine (biogenic amine) neurotransmitter and adrenal medullary
hormone,
associated with sympathetic nervous system activation (Marieb, 1998)
Nuclear Bag Fibers
Intrafusal muscle fibers which contain the primary muscle spindle receptors (Siff, 2003)
Nuclear Chain Fibers
Intrafusal
muscle fibers which contain the secondary muscle spindle receptors (Siff,
2003)
Nucleic Acid
Class
of organic
molecules that includes DNA and RNA (Marieb, 1998)
Nutrient Density
Refers to the nutrients (vitamins, minerals, and protein) present per calorie of food (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Nutrients
Chemical
substances taken in via the diet that
are used for
energy and cell building (Marieb, 1998)
Nutritional Agents
Nutritional
substances proposed to have ergogenic benefits (Wilmore
& Costill,
2004)
Obesity
An excessive accumulation and storage of fatty tissue; greater than 20% above ideal body weight for size, age, and gender (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Objectivity
The aspect of measurement related to the extent to which two observers achieve the same score (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Oligomenorrhea
Abnormally infrequent or scant menstruation (Wilmore & Costill, 2004).
One Repetition Maximum (1RM)
See 1-RM
Onset of Blood Lactate
Accumulation (OBLA)
A second increase in the rate of lactate accumulation noted at higher relative intensities of exercise; usually occurs when the concentration of blood lactate is near 4 mmol/L (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Open-Loop System
A control
system with preprogrammed instructions to an effector that does not use
feedback information and error-detection processes (Schmidt
& Lee,
1999)
Operant
A desired or target behavior; a clearly defined standard of performance (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which the response is strengthened or weakened by events that follow the response (Siff, 2003)
Operant
Techniques
Methods for leaning in which certain behaviors are reinforced or rewarded, leading to an increase in the probability that they will occur again (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Operationalize
To concretely specify a behavior so that it can be measured (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Optimized Submovement Model
A view of
the speed-accuracy trade-off that optimizes the duration of an initial
impulse
and, if necessary, one or more corrective impulses (Schmidt
& Lee,
1999)
Oral Contraceptives
Drugs
used for birth control and other medical purposes, which are believed
by some
female athletes to have ergogenic properties (Wilmore
& Costill,
2004)
Organ
A part of the body formed of two or more tissues and adapted to carry out a specific function; e.g., the stomach (Marieb, 1998)
Organic Compound
Any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds (Marieb, 1998)
Organic
Pertaining to carbon-containing molecules, such as proteins, fasts, and carbohydrates (Marieb, 1998)
Organism
The
living animal (or plant), which represents the sum total of all its
organ
systems working together to maintain life (Marieb, 1998)
Origin
Attachment
of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during muscular contraction
(Marieb,
1998)
Oscillatory Isometrics
An
isometric training technique in which maximum tension can be produced
voluntarily during sinusoidally
pulsed brief
isometric jerks at 5 Hertz (Siff, 2003)
Osmosis
The diffusion through a semipermeable membrane of a solvent such as water from a lower to a more concentrated solution (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Osmotic Pressure
The
force per unit
area needed to stop osmosis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Ossification
See
Osteogenesis
Osteoblasts
Bone-forming
cells
(Marieb, 1998)
Osteoclasts
Large
cells that resorb or
break down bone matrix (Marieb, 1998)
Osteocyte
Mature
bone cell
(Marieb, 1998)
Osteogenesis
The
process of bone
formation; also called ossification (Marieb, 1998)
Osteoid
Unmineralized bone matrix (Marieb, 1998)
Osteomalacia
Disorder
in which
bones are inadequately mineralized; soft bones (Marieb, 1998)
Osteon
System of
interconnecting canals in the microscopic structure of adult compact
bone; unit
of bone; also called Haversion
system (Marieb, 1998)
Osteopenia
A conditioned defined by having a bone mineral density between –1 and –2.5 standard deviations (SD) of the young adult mean (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Osteoporosis
Increased
softening of the bone resulting from a gradual decrease in rate of bone
formation; a bone mineral density below –2.5 SD of the young
adult mean (Baechle
& Earle, 2000)
(Marieb, 1998)
Outer Vesicles
The terminal ends of the longitudinal tubules of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which store Ca++; also called the outer cisterns and terminal cisternae (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Overcoming Muscle Action
See Concentric Muscle Action (Siff, 2003)
Overflow
The phenomenon of assistant movers being recruited due to significant increases in loading (Siff, 2003)
Overload Principle
Progressively increasing the volume and/or intensity of exercise during workouts over the course of the training program as fitness capacity improves (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Overreaching
Overtraining on a short-term basis where recovery is easily achieved within a few days; often a planned phase of many training programs (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Overtraining
Imbalance between high volume and/or high intensity training and adequate recovery, resulting in disturbances in physical performance, biologic function, and mood state (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Overweight
Body weight that exceeds the normal or standard weight for a particular individual based on sex, height, and frame size; a BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Oxford
A
strength training method in which exercises are executed in the reverse
order;
after a warm up, a few repetitions of maximal loads are attempted
followed by a
progressive shift towards lighter weights with more repetitions (Siff,
2003)
Oxidases
Enzymes
that catalyze the transfer of oxygen in oxidation-reduction reactions
(Marieb,
1998)
Oxidation
Process
of
substances combining with oxygen or the removal of hydrogen (Marieb,
1998)
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reaction
A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of elections) of another substance (Marieb, 1998)
Oxidative Capacity of Muscle
A measure of the muscle’s maximal capacity to use oxygen (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Process of ATP synthesis during which an inorganic phosphate group is attached to ADP; occurs via the electron transport chain within the mitochondria (Marieb, 1998)
Oxidative
State
Regulation
A mechanism of control of cellular metabolism that is closely linked to the relative availability of oxygen and subsequent activation of the electron transport system enzyme, cytochrome oxidase (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Oxygen
Consumption
The amount or rate at which oxygen can be consumed per minute (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Oxygen Debt
The volume of oxygen required after exercise to oxidize the lactic acid formed during the exercise (Marieb, 1998)
Oxygen
Deficit
The time period during exercise in which the level of oxygen consumption is below that necessary to supply all the ATP required for the exercise; the time period during which an oxygen debt is contracted (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Oxygen
Diffusion
Capacity
The rate at which oxygen diffuses from one place to another (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Oxygen
Poisoning
(Toxicity)
A condition caused by breathing oxygen under high pressure; symptoms include tingling of fingers and toes, visual disturbances, auditory hallucinations, confusion, muscle and lip twitching, nausea, vertigo, and convulsions (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Oxygen Supplementation
The breathing of supplemental oxygen, which is proposed to have ergogenic effects (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Oxygen System
An aerobic energy system in which ATP is manufactured when food (principally sugar and fat) is broken down; this system produces ATP most abundantly and is the prime energy source during long-lasting (endurance) activities (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Oxygen Transport System (VO2)
Composed of the stroke volume (SV), the heart rate (HR), and the arterial-mixed venous oxygen difference (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Oxygen
Uptake
A measure of a person’s ability to take in and use oxygen; also known as oxygen consumption (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Oxyhemoglobin
Oxygen-bound
form of
hemoglobin (Marieb, 1998)
Pain
of Effort
Not necessarily a result of injury, but refers to one’s personal interpretation of the intensity of a given effort and is sometimes assessed on a subjective scale called the rating of perceived effort (RPE) (Siff, 2003)
Pain of Injury
A
protective response to any activity which is causing or has caused
damage to
some system of the body (Siff, 2003)
Pancreas
Endocrine gland responsible for the synthesis and secretion of two hormones important to blood glucose regulation; insulin and its beta cells and glucagons from its alpha cells (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Parallel Axis Theorem
A theorem stating the relationship between the moment of inertia about an axis through the body’s center of mass (Icm) and any other parallel axis (Iaxis) such that:
(Iaxis = Icm + mr2 ) where m is the mass of the body and r is the perpendicular distance between the axes (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Parallel Elastic Component
(PEC)
Consists of sarcolemma, rest-state cross bridges, and tissues such as sheaths around the muscle and its sub-units; responsible for the force exerted by a relaxed muscle when it is stretched beyond its resting length (Siff, 2003)
Parallel Processing
A value
specified to the generalized motor program that defines the particular
expression of the pattern of activity (Schmidt &
Lee, 1999)
Parasagittal Planes
All
sagittal planes offset
from the midline (Marieb, 1998)
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division
of the autonomic nervous system that oversees digestion, elimination,
and
glandular function; the resting and digesting subdivision (Marieb, 1998)
Parasympathetic Overtraining Syndrome
A type of overtraining syndrome that includes increased parasympathetic activity at rest and with exercise (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Parasympathetic Tone
Stat of parasympathetic effects; e.g., unnecessary heart accelerations; normal activity levels of digestive and urinary tracts (Marieb, 1998)
Parathyroid Glands
Small
endocrine
glands located on the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland (Marieb,
1998)
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Hormone released by the parathyroid glands that regulates blood calcium level (Marieb, 1998)
Paroxysmal Tachycardia
A sudden onset of rapid heart rate; from paroxysmal meaning sharp or sudden and tachycardia meaning an increased heart rate, usually faster than 100 beats per minute (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Parkinson’s Disease
Neurodegenerative
disorder of the basal nuclei involving abnormalities of the
neurotransmitter
dopamine; symptoms include persistent tremor and rigid movement
(Marieb, 1998)
Part-Whole Methods
The
learning technique in which the task is broken down into its parts for
separate
practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Partial Pressure
The
pressure exerted
by a single component of a mixture of gases (Marieb, 1998)
Passive (Resting) Recovery
A period following exercise when no cool-down movement or less intense activity is practiced, i.e., the subject remains sedentary during recovery from exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Passive Stabilizers
Ligaments
which help
to stabilize body segments during a movement (Siff, 2003)
Passive Stretching
An
external load is
imposed on relaxed or isometrically contracted muscles (Siff,
2003)
Passive Transport
Membrane transport processes that do not require cellular energy (ATP), e.g., diffusion, which is driven by kinetic energy (Marieb, 1998)
Pathophysiology
The physiology of a specific disease or disorder (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Peak Bone Mass
The maximum bone mass achieved (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Peak Height Velocity
A critical period of pubertal growth in which young athletes may be at increased risk for injury; usually occurs about age 12 in females and age 14 in males; relative weakening of the bone during this stage of growth, muscle imbalances between flexors and extensors around joints, and the relative tightening of the muscle-tendon units spanning rapidly growing bones (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Pectoral
Pertaining
to the
chest (Marieb, 1998)
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
Bones that attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton; includes the clavicle and the scapula (Marieb, 1998)
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
Consists
of the paired coxal
bones that attach the lower limbs
to the axial skeleton (Marieb, 1998)
Pelvis
Basin-shaped
bony structure composed of the pelvic girdle, sacrum, and coccyx
(Marieb, 1998)
Pennate
A pennate
muscle has muscle fibers that align obliquely with
the tendon and the angle of the pennation
with the
tendon can affect the number of sarcomeres per cross-sectional area and
thus
the maximal force capabilities (Baechle & Earle,
2000)
Peptide Bond
Bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule (Marieb, 1998)
Perceptual Anticipation
Anticipation of the arrival of a signal through internal mechanisms or processes (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Perceptual Narrowing
The focusing of attention so that specific sources of information are more likely to be received but rare events are more likely to be missed (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Perceptual Trace
A construct in
Perforating Canals
Canals that run at right angles to the long axis of the bone, connecting the vascular and nerve supplies of the periosteum to those of the central canals and medullary cavity; also called Volkmann’s canals (Marieb, 1998)
Performance
Curve
A plot of the average performance of a group of subjects for each of a number of practice trials or blocks of trials (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Performance
Variable
An independent variable that affects performance temporarily (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Pericardium
Double-layered
serosa enclosing the
heart and forming its superficial
layer (Marieb, 1998)
Perichondrium
Fibrous, connective-tissue membrane covering the external surface of cartilaginous structures (Marieb, 1998)
Perimysium
Connective
tissue
enveloping bundles of muscle fibers (Marieb, 1998)
Periodization
The
structured, sequential development of athletic skill or a physiologic
capacity
brought about by organizing training regimens into blocks of time (macrocycles, mesocycles, etc) (Foss
and Keteyian,
1998)
Periosteum
Double-layered
connective tissue that covers and nourishes the bone (Marieb, 1998)
Peripheral Blood Flow
Blood flow to the extremities and skin (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Portion of the nervous system consisting of nerves and ganglia that lie outside of the brain and spinal cord (Marieb, 1998)
Peripheral Resistance (PR)
A measure of the amount of friction encountered by blood as it flows through the blood vessels (Marieb, 1998)
Peripheral Vascular Disease
Diseases of the systemic arteries and veins, especially those of the extremities that impede adequate blood flow (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Permeability
That property of membranes that permits passage of molecules and ions (Marieb, 1998)
Perturbation
An unexpected physical event that changes the movement or the movement goal (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Pharmacological
Agents
A group of drugs proposed to have ergogenic properties (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Phase
Transition
An abrupt shift from one coordination pattern to another (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Phasic
Dynamic, referring to a dynamic muscle effort or movement (Siff, 2003)
Phasic Tension
Refers to dynamic muscular work in exercises requiring production of a driving force of a given magnitude (Siff, 2003)
Phasing
The temporal structure of a sequence, usually measured by the ratios of element durations and the overall movement duration (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Phosphate Loading
The practice of ingesting sodium phosphate, which has been proposed to have ergogenic properties (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Phosphogen
A group of compounds; collectively refers to ATP and PC (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Phosphagen
System
Provides ATP primarily for short-term, high-intensity activities such as resistance training and sprinting; is active at the start of all exercise regardless of intensity; relies on the chemical reactions of ATP and creatine phosphate as well as the enzymes myosinATPase and creatine kinase (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Phosphocreatine (PC)
A chemical compound stored in muscle, which when broken down aids in manufacturing ATP (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
A key rate-limiting enzyme of the anaerobic glycolytic energy system (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Phospholipid
Modified lipid, contains phosphorus (Marieb, 1998)
Phosphorylase
A key enzyme of the anaerobic glycolytic energy system (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Phosphorylation
The mechanism of ATP synthesis; includes substrate-level and oxidative phosphorylation (Marieb, 1998)
Physical Maturity
The point at which the body has attained the adult physical form (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Physiological Acidosis
Arterial pH lower than 7.35 resulting from any cause (Marieb, 1998)
Physiological Agents
A group of agents normally present in the body that have been proposed to have ergogenic effects (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Physiology
Study of the function of living organisms (Marieb, 1998)
Physiological Dead Space
Alveoli that have poor blood flow, poor ventilation, or other problems with the alveolar surface that impair gas exchange (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Pituitary Gland
Neuroendocrine gland located beneath the brain that serves a variety of functions including regulation of gonads, thyroid, adrenal cortex, lactation, and water balance; the master gland (Marieb, 1998)
Placebo
An inert substance having the identical physical characteristics of a real drug (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Placebo
Effect
The phenomenon of a belief causing real physical change (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Plaque
A buildup of lipids, smooth muscle cells, connective tissue, and debris that forms at the site of injury to an artery (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Plasma
The nonliving fluid component of blood within which formed elements and various solutes are suspended are circulated (Marieb, 1998)
Plasma Cells
Members of a B cell clone; specialized to produce and release antibodies (Marieb, 1998)
Plasma Membrane
Membrane, composed of three lamina layers, that encloses cell contents; outer limiting cell membrane (Marieb, 1998)
Plasmolysis
The shrinking of a cell such as the red blood cell (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Plateau
Method of
Training
A type of training involving the use of a constant load for 3 to 4 sets; this method is commonly used during the early stages of training novices or for transitional active rest phases after weeks of heavy training (Siff, 2003)
Platelet-Derived
Growth
Factor (PDGF)
A substance released by blood platelets that promotes the migration of smooth muscle cells from the media of an artery into the intima (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Pleura
Membranes enveloping the lungs and lining the chest walls (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Pleural Pressure
The pressure in the narrow space between the lung pleura and the chest wall (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Plexus
A network of converging and diverging nerve fibers, blood vessels, or lymphatics (Marieb, 1998)
Plyometrics
A method of strength and power training that involves an eccentric loading of muscles and tendons followed by a quickly timed concentric contraction; stimulating the muscles by means of a sudden stretch preceding any voluntary effort (Foss and Keteyian, 1998) (Siff, 2003)
Point-To-Point Computation
Models of limb control in which the coordinates of each point in a limb’s trajectory are achieved sequentially by the motor system at the time of response execution (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Polar Molecules
Nonsymmetrical
molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms (Marieb, 1998)
Polarized
State of a plasma membrane of an unstimulated neuron or muscle cell in which the inside of the cell is relatively negative in comparison to the outside; the resting state (Marieb, 1998)
Polycythemia
An excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes (Marieb, 1998)
Polymer
A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units (Marieb, 1998)
Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids (Marieb, 1998)
Polypeptide Hormone
Hormones made up of amino acids; growth hormone and insulin are examples (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Polyrhythm
The rhythm produced when two effectors simultaneously produce their own, nonharmonic rhythms (e.g., three beats with one finger combined with two beats of another finger) (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Polysaccharide
Literally, many sugars, a pplymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen (Marieb, 1998)
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
A long chain of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms, which includes two or more double bonds between carbon atoms in place of hydrogen atoms; tends to lower cholesterol in the body (Foss and Keteyian, 1998), (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Ponderal Index
Body height divided by the cube root of body weight (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Positive Energy Balance
A condition in which more energy (food) is taken in than is given off; body weight increases as a result (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback the tends to cause the level of a variable to change in the same direction as an initial change (Marieb, 1998)
Positive/Negative
Punishment
The presentation (positive) or removal (negative) of an act, object, or event following a behavior that could decrease the behaviors occurrence; An example of positive punishment would be reprimanding a player after a mistake; An example of negative punishment would be to remove playing time from a player after a mistake.
Positive/Negative
Reinforcement
The act of increasing the probability of occurrence of a given behavior by following it with an action, object, or event (positive) or by removing an act, object, or event (negative); An example of positive reinforcement is to award an athlete for success with a trophy; An example of negative reinforcement is to award an athlete for success by removing a difficult conditioning session from practice (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Positive
Transfer
The gain in capability on one task as a result of practice or experience on some other task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Positive
Work
Force times distance applied in opposition to the pull of gravity; the work done by a system when the torque exerted by a muscle is greater than the torque of the external load (Foss and Keteyian, 1998) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Post-KR
Delay
The interval of time between the presentation of KR and the next movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Post-Tetanic
Potentiation
Any stimulus, whether momentary or not, leaves traces in the nervous system; the after-effect of muscular activity persists for some time following the cessation of the stimulus (Siff, 2003)
Posterior
Lobe
The portion of the pituitary gland located closest to the spinal cord (posterior position); also called the neurohypophysis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Postganglionic Neuron
Autonomic
motor neuron that has its cell body in a peripheral ganglion and
projects its
axon to an effector (Marieb, 1998)
Postsynaptic Neuron
A
nerve cell located
distal to a synapse (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Potential
Stored
or inactive
energy (Marieb, 1998)
Power
The rate
of performing work; the product of force and velocity; the rate of
transformation of metabolic potential energy to work or heat (SI unit:
watt) (Foss
and Keteyian, 1998)
Power Stroke
The tilting of the myosin head, caused by a strong intermolecular attraction between the myosin cross bridge and the myosin head, which causes the actin and myosin filaments to slide across each other (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Preadolescence
Refers to a period of life before the development of secondary sex characteristics (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Precision of KR
The level of accuracy with which KR describes the movement outcome produced (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Prediction
The process in which the score on a criterion variable is estimated from one or more predictor variables based on the association between them (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Predictor Variable
The variable(s) from which a criterion variable is predicted (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Pre-Exhaustion Training
A method of training involving the performance of a single-joint exercise which preferentially exhausts one of the muscle groups that will be used in the following multi-joint exercise (Siff, 2003)
Preganglionic Neuron
Autonomic motor neuron that has its cell body in the central nervous system and projects its axon to a peripheral ganglion (Marieb, 1998)
Pregnancy
The state of carrying an embryo or fetus in the body (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Preload
Stretch placed on muscle fibers just prior to contraction (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Premature
Ventricular
Contraction (PVC)
A common cardiac arrhythmia that results in the feeling of skipped or extra beats caused by impulses originating outside the SA node (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Premotor
Area
The area of the brain just forward of the primary motor cortex (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Premotor
Reaction Time
The interval from the stimulus presentation to the initial change in EMG (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Preparation
Reorganization of attention and information processing so that a signal can be received and responded to quickly (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Preparedness
The resultant of the interaction of the body’s long-term fitness increase stimulated by training and the opposing short-term fatigue after-effects of training, excluding the effects of any other modifying factors such as exaggerated mental state or illness (Siff, 2003)
Preprogramming
The process of preparing the motor program for initiation (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Preselection
Effect
In short-term motor memory work, the phenomenon that the memory for subject-selected movements is stronger than for experimenter-selected movements (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Pressure
Force per unit area (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Pressoreceptor
A nerve ending in the wall of the carotid sinus and aortic arch sensitive to vessel stretching (Marieb, 1998)
Pressure Gradient
Difference in hydrostatic pressure that drives filtration (Marieb, 1998)
Primary Active Transport
A type of active transport in which the energy needed to drive the transport process is provided directly by hydrolysis of ATP (Marieb, 1998)
Primary Amenorrhea
The absence of menarche (the beginning of menstruation) beyond age 18 (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Primary Motor Cortex
That area of the brain (cortex) containing groups of motor neurons other than Betz cells (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Primary Risk Factors
Risk factors that have been conclusively shown to have a strong association with a certain disease (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Prime Mover
Muscle that bears the major responsibility for effecting a particular movement; an agonist (Marieb, 1998)
Principle of Disuse
The theory that a training program must include a maintenance plan to ensure that the gains from training are not lost (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Principle of Hard/Easy
The theory that a training program must alternate high-intensity workouts with low-intensity workouts to help the body recover and achieve optimal training adaptation (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Principle of Individuality
See Individualization Principle of Training
Principle of Orderly Recruitment
The theory that motor units generally are activated on the basis of a fixed order of recruitment, in which the motor units within a given muscle appear to be ranked according to the size of the motor neuron (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Proactive Interference
In the interference theory, a source of forgetting caused by learning imposed before the original learning of some to-be-remembered task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Probe Technique
A secondary-task method that uses reaction time to assess the attention demands of a primary task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Process
Prominence or projection; series of actions for a specific purpose (Marieb, 1998)
Procollagen
A protein synthesized and secreted by fibroblasts; cleavage of procollagen extensions result in the formation of active/mature collagen molecules (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Progesterone
Hormone partly responsible for preparing the uterus for the fertilized ovum (Marieb, 1998)
Progression-Regression Hypothesis
The idea that learning produces a progression to more complex control strategies and that stress or forgetting produces a regression to more simple levels (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Progressive Muscle
Relaxation (PMR)
A somatopsychic technique by which psychological and physical arousal are self-regulated through the control of skeletal muscle tension’ by going through a series of alternate muscular tensioning and relaxing phases, the athlete learns to become aware of somatic tension and thereby to control it (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Progressive Overload
Progressively placing greater-than-normal demands on the exercising musculature; the use of progressively greater resistance over a given period, as well as the progressive increase in muscle tension produced by involuntary or voluntary processes (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Siff, 2003)
Progressive-Resistance
Exercise (PRE)
Comprehensive term to cover a wide variety of muscular strength or endurance training practices where progressive overload is emphasized (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Pronation
Inward rotation of the forearm causing the radius to cross diagonally over the ulna – palms face posteriorly (Marieb, 1998)
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
Facilitation (PNF)
A system for
promoting the response of neuromuscular mechanisms by stimulating the
proprioceptors; a method for improving joint flexibility by contracting
against
opposition, then relaxing and stretching further (Foss and Keteyian,
1998)
Proprioceptor
Receptor located in a joint, muscle, or tendon; concerned with locomotion, posture, and muscle tone (Marieb, 1998)
Prostaglandins
A class of hormones found in nearly all cellular membranes; have a fatty acid as their molecular base; may regulate resting blood flow through vasodilation; numerous other effects suggested (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Protein
Complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; composes 10% to 30% of cell mass (Marieb, 1998)
Protein
Expression
The end result of multiple sources of control that results in the synthesis of specific structural or enzymatic proteins (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Protein Quality
Determined by whether or not a protein supplies amino acids in amounts proportionate to the body’s needs; high-quality or complete proteins supply the required amino acids (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Proteoglycan
Carbohydrate-protein molecules; their presence attracts fluid into the cartilage matrix (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Proton
Subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus (Marieb, 1998)
Proton Acceptor
A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; commonly referred to as a base (Marieb, 1998)
Proton Donor
A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid (Marieb, 1998)
Proximal
Toward the attached end of a limb or the origin of a structure (Marieb, 1998)
Pseudounipolar Neuron
Another term for unipolar neuron (Marieb, 1998)
Psychrometer
An instrument used for measuring the relative humidity (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Puberty
Refers to a period of time in which secondary sex characteristics develop and a child is transformed into a young adult (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Pulmonary
Pertaining to the lungs (Marieb, 1998)
Pulmonary Arteries
Vessels that deliver blood to the lungs to be oxygenated (Marieb, 1998)
Pulmonary Circuit
System of blood vessels that serves gas exchange in the lungs, i.e., pulmonary arteries, capillaries, and veins (Marieb, 1998)
Pulmonary Diffusion
The exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Pulmonary Valve
Heart valve located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery; prevents backflow from the pulmonary arteries into the ventricles during relaxation (diastole) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Pulmonary Veins
Vessels that deliver freshly oxygenated blood from the respiratory zones of the lungs to the heart (Marieb, 1998)
Pulmonary Ventilation
Breathing; consists of inspiration and expiration (Marieb, 1998)
Pulse
Rhythmic expansion and recoil of arteries resulting from heart contraction; can be felt from outside the body (Marieb, 1998)
Purkinje Fibers
Modified cardiac muscle fibers of the conduction system of the heart (Marieb, 1998)
Pyramid Method of Training
A training method involving the performance of 4 to 5 sets of an exercise where the load is progressively increased and the number of repetitions decreased with each set (Siff, 2003)
Pyramidal (Corticospinal) Tracts
Major motor pathways concerned with voluntary movement; descend from the frontal lobes of each cerebral hemisphere (Marieb, 1998)
Pyruvate
The end product of glycolysis; converted to lactic acid or is transported to the mitochondria (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Pyruvic
Acid
A three-carbon by-product resulting from the metabolism of glucose within the cytoplasm of the cell; enters Krebs Cycle for further breakdown (oxygen available) or is converted to lactic acid (oxygen lacking) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Psychological
Refractoriness
The delay in the response to the second of two closely spaced stimuli (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Q10
Effect
An increase in the speed of cellular metabolic reactions as a result of an increase in body temperature; the 10 is from culture studies indicating that reaction speeds double with a 10º C increase in temperature (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Quasi-Isometric
Very slow concentric or eccentric movement occurring at near-maximal loads (Siff, 2003)
Quickness
Describes rapid movement involving little resistance or muscular effort; the ability of the central nervous system to contract, relax, or control muscle function without involvement of any preliminary stretch; high speed movement which does not encounter large external resistance or require great strength, power, or energy consumption (Siff, 2003)
Radiation
The transfer of heat between two objects through electromagnetic waves (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Radius
of Gyration
A measure of the distribution of a body’s mass about an axis of rotation (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Ramus
Branch of a nerve, artery, vein, or bone (Marieb, 1998)
Random Practice
A practice sequence in which the tasks being practiced are ordered (quasi-) randomly across trials; high contextual interference (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Rate Coding
The rate at which the motor units are fired (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Rate of Force Development
(RFD)
A measurement of how much force is developed in a specific amount of time; a measurement of explosive strength (Siff, 2003)
Rate of Perceived Exertion
(RPE)
Developed by Borg to enable one to estimate the intensity of cardiovascular exer4cise on a scale running originally from 6 to 22; the range was chosen because the average adult pulse rate varies from approximately 60 at rest to a maximum of 220 beats per minute (Siff, 2003)
Rate-Limiting Enzymes
A few enzymes that serve as “gate-keepers” – i.e., they control the rate at which glycolytic and mitochondrial metabolic reactions are allowed to proceed (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Rate-Limiting Step
The slowest reaction in a series of reactions (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Rate-Pressure Product
The product of heart rate and systolic blood pressure, which provides a noninvasive estimate of myocardial oxygen consumption (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Reach/Grasp
Action
An action that coordinates the limb-transport component with the opening and closing of the grasp component (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Reactant
A substance taking part in a chemical reaction (Marieb, 1998)
Reaction Time
The time interval between stimulus and response (or initiation of movement) (Siff, 2003)
Reactive Ability
The switch from stretching to active contraction using the elastic energy of the stretch to increase the power of the subsequent contraction, a process that is central to the so-called stretch-shortening cycle and plyometric action (Siff, 2003)
Reactivity Coefficient
The explosive strength index relative to body weight or the weight of the object being moved (Siff, 2003)
Recall Schema
A construct in schema theory; the relationship between past parameters, past initial conditions, and the movement outcomes produced by these combinations (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Receptor
A cell or nerve ending of a sensory neuron specialized to respond to particular types of stimuli; molecule that binds specifically with other molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters, hormones, antigens (Marieb, 1998)
Receptor
Anticipation
Anticipation of the arrival of a stimulus due to sensory information about its time of arrival (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Receptor
Inhibition
Basic reflex that causes antagonist muscle group to relax while agonist group is undergoing concentric contraction (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Receptor Potential
A graded potential that occurs at a sensory receptor membrane (Marieb, 1998)
Reciprocal Inhibition
A relaxed body will promote a relaxed mind; a positive side effect of the reduced muscle tension may be an increase in smooth, fluid, or efficient movement as well as an increased range of motion around the joint (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Recognition Schema
A construct in schema theory; the relationship between past initial conditions, past movement outcomes, and the sensory consequences produced by these combinations (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Recompression
Increasing the pressure exerted on the body, usually in a recompression chamber, to cause nitrogen bubbles to go back into solution (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Recovery Oxygen
Net amount of oxygen consumed during recovery from exercise; oxygen consumed in excess of the amount consumed at rest over the same time period (reported in liters ) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Recruitment
A means of varying muscular force output; increases in force output are achieved by recruiting additional motor units (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Reduced
In a chemical reaction, the state of having an added hydrogen (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Reduction
Chemical reaction in which electrons and energy are gained by a molecule (often accompanied by gain of hydrogen ions) or oxygen is lost (Marieb, 1998)
Reflex
Autonomic reaction to stimuli (Marieb, 1998)
Reflex-Reversal Phenomenon
The phenomenon by which a given stimulus can produce two different reflexive responses depending on the function of the limb in a movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Refractory Period
Period during which an excitable cell is not responsive to a threshold stimulus (Marieb, 1998)
Regeneration
Replacement of destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Regression Line
The line of best fit between two variables, whose slope and intercept are determined by regression analysis (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Relative Body Fat
The ratio of fat mass to total body mass, expressed as a percentage (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Relative Force
An invariant feature of the motor program that defines the relationships between the forces produced in the various actions in a movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Relative Frequency of Knowledge of Results
The percentage of trials for which knowledge of results is provided; the absolute frequency divided by the number of trials (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Relative Humidity
Raito of water vapor in the atmosphere to the amount of water vapor required to saturate the atmosphere at the same temperature (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Relative
Phase
A measure of temporal coordination that expresses the position of one limb within its cycle relative to the other limb within its cycle (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Relative Refractory Period
Follows the absolute refractory period; interval when a threshold stimulus is unable to trigger an action potential (Marieb, 1998)
Relative
Retention
Measures of retention in which the performance on the retention test is evaluated in relation to the level of performance reached in original learning (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Relative
Weight
The percentage by which an individual is either overweight or underweight, generally determined by dividing the person’s weight by the mean weight for the medium frame category for his or her height (from standard weight tables) (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Releasing
Factor
A group of specific substances produced by the hypothalamus that can stimulate or inhibit the release of all hormones produced by the adenohypophysis with the exception of the endorphins (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Reliability
The aspect of measurement related to the repeatability of a score (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Relief
Interval
In an interval-training program, the time between work intervals as well as between sets (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Remote
Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a segment about the total body center of mass (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Remoteness
Effect
In intertrial correlation matrices, the tendency for trials that are progressively more separated in the practice sequence to correlate systematically lower with each other (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Renin
An enzyme formed by the kidneys to convert a plasma protein called angiotensinogen into angiotensin II
Renin-Angiotensin
Mechanism
The mechanism involved in renal control of blood pressure; the kidneys responds to decreased blood pressure or blood flow by forming renin, which converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which is finally converted into angiotensin II; angiotensin II constricts arterioles and triggers aldosterone release (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Rep-Pausing
Sets
A training method which entails taking a short rest break during the execution of a set to facilitate recovery, diminish the pain of effort, or overcome any loss of motivation before competing the remaining repetitions (Siff, 2003)
Repetitions
(Reps)
In an interval-training program; the number of work intervals within one set (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Repetition
Maximum (RM)
The maximal load that a muscle group can lift over a given number of repetitions before fatiguing; for example, a 10RM load is the maximal load that can be lifted over ten repetitions (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Repetition
Principle
Consistent repetition diminishes spurious neuromuscular activity and enables one to concentrate predominantly on the task being learned; expertise is established and the movement becomes automatic only after further and consistent repetitions (Siff, 2003)
Repetition
To Failure Method
A training method that involves continuing the exercise until it is impossible to execute another repetition without assistance; often used for muscle endurance and definition training (Siff, 2003)
Repetitive
Effort Method
This training method consists of repetitively lifting a weight whose magnitude is increased as muscular strength grows (Siff, 2003)
Repolarization
Movement of the membrane potential to the initial resting (polarized)state (Marieb, 1998)
Residual Volume (RV)
Volume of air remaining the lungs at end of maximal expiration (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Resistance Arm
See Moment Arm (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Resistance Exercise
High-intensity exercise in which the muscles are pitted against high resistance or immovable forces and, as a result, muscle cells increase in size (Marieb, 1998)
Resistance Force
Force generated by a source external to the body (e.g., gravity, inertia, friction) that acts contrary to muscle force; a force that resists the effort force in a lever (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Respiration
The process involved in supplying the body with oxygen and disposing of carbon dioxide (Marieb, 1998)
Respiratory
Alkalosis
A condition in which increased carbon dioxide clearance allows blood pH to increase (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Respiratory
Exchange
Ratio (RER)
The ratio of the amount of carbon dioxide produced by the body to the amount of oxygen consumed (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Respiratory Center
Composed
of several widely dispersed groups of neurons located bilaterally in
the lower
portion of the brain stem (the pons
and medulla
oblongata) (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Respiratory System
Organ system that carries out gas exchange; includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs (Marieb, 1998)
Respondent
Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which the response is modified by a preceding stimulus (Siff, 2003)
Response-Chaining
Hypothesis
A movement-control theory whereby each element in a sequence is triggered by movement feedback from the previous element (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Response
Phase
The time interval between the appearance of the EMG signal and the motor action (Siff, 2003)
Response-Programming
Stage
A stage of information processing in which the previously chosen response is transformed into overt muscular action (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Response-Selection
Stage
A stage of information processing in which the response associated with the presented stimulus is selected (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Response
Time
See Response Phase
Rest-Recovery
Resting during recovery from exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Rest-Relief
In an interval-training program, a type of relief interval involving moderate moving about, such as walking and flexing of arms and legs (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
The voltage that exists across the plasma membrane during the resting state of an excitable cell; ranges from –50 to –200 millivolts depending on cell type (Marieb, 1998)
Resting
Metabolic Rate
(RMR)
The body’s metabolic rate early in the morning following an overnight fast and eight hours of sleep (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Restoration
The use of natural and artificial means of recovery following training and competition (Siff, 2003)
Retention
Interval
The interval between the end of original learning and the retention test (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Retention
Test
A performance test administered after a retention interval for the purpose of assessing learning (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Reticular Formation
Functional
system that spans the brain stem; involved in regulating sensory input
to the
cerebral cortex, cortical arousal, and control of motor behavior
(Marieb, 1998)
Reticular Lamina
A layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibers; together with the basal lamina it is a major component of the basement membrane (Marieb, 1998)
Reticulocyte
Immature
erythrocyte
(Marieb, 1998)
Retraining
Recovery of conditioning after a period of inactivity (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Retroactive Interference
In the interference theory, a source of forgetting caused by practice imposed between the original learning and the retention test for a to-be-remembered task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Reversal Hypothesis
A view of
the relationship between arousal and performance that is based on
individual
differences in the interpretation of one’s arousal level (Schmidt
&
Lee, 1999)
Ribose
A
five-carbon sugar molecule that when linked to adenine forms adenosine,
the
molecular foundation for ATP, ADP, and AMP (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
A constituent of ribosome; exists within the ribosomes of cytoplasm and assist in protein synthesis (Marieb, 1998)
Ribosomes
Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are
synthesized (Marieb,
1998)
Right Bundle Branch
Part of the conduction system of the heart that receives the impulse from the AV bundle and passes it along to the Purkinje Fibers (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Risk Factor
A
condition, trait, or habit that is associated with an increased risk or
danger
of developing a specific health problem in the future (Foss
and
Keteyian, 1998)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Nucleic acid that contains ribose and the bases A, G,C, and U; carries out DNA’s instructions for protein synthesis (Marieb, 1998)
Root-Mean-Square
Error
(RMSE)
The square root of the average squared deviations of a set of values from a target value; typically used as a measure of tracking proficiency (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Rotation
The
turning of a
bone around its own long axis (Marieb, 1998)
Rotational Kinetic Energy
The
capacity to do angular work; the product of half the moment of inertia
and the
angular velocity squared (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Rotational Work
The product
of torque times angular displacement (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Rule of Sixty Percent
The
training volume of any stage (day or microcycle) with light loading
should be
approximately 60% of the volume of a stage with heavy (maximal or
near-maximal)
loading (Siff, 2003)
S-Factors
of Fitness
Strength,
speed, stamina, suppleness (flexibility), skill (neuromuscular
efficiency),
style, structure (somatotype,
size, shape), and
spirit (Siff, 2003)
Sacral Vertebrae
5
vertebrae of the lower back; fused together and make up the rear part
of the
pelvis (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Sagittal Plane
A
longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or any of its parts
into
right and left portions (Marieb, 1998)
Saline
A 0.9% salt solution that is isotonic to the blood (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Saltatory Conduction
The
propagation of a nerve impulse form one node of Ranvier
to another along a myelinated fiber (Foss and Keteyian,
1998)
Sarcolemma
The
plasma membrane
surface of a muscle fiber (Marieb, 1998)
Sarcomere
The
smallest
contractile unit of muscle; extends from one Z disc to the next
(Marieb, 1998)
Sarcomere Hypertrophy
An
increase in the size and number of the sarcomeres which comprise the
myofibrils; these may be added in series or parallel with the existing
myofibrils, although only the parallel growth with contribute to an
increased
ability to produce muscle tension (Siff, 2003)
Sarcopenia
Aging associated muscle wasting that results in lower basal metabolic rate, weakness, reduced activity levels, decreased bone density, and lowered caloric needs (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Sarcoplasm
Muscle protoplasm (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Sarcoplasmic Hyperplasia
Involves an increase in the number of sarcoplasmic organelles (Siff, 2003)
Sarcoplasmic Hypertrophy
The
volume of non-contractile protein and semifluid
plasma between the muscle fibers increases; although the
cross-sectional area
of the muscle increases, the density of muscle fibers per unit area
decreases
and there is no corresponding increase in muscle strength (Siff,
2003)
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
Specialized endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells (Marieb, 1998)
Saturated Fatty Acids
A fatty acid where all carbon atoms of the chain structure are filled with hydrogen atoms (i.e., there is no double bonding); often found in animal fats, eggs, and dairy products; tends to raise cholesterol in the body (Foss and Keteyian, 1998), (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Savings Score
A statistic used in transfer experiments, representing the “savings’ in practice time resulting from experience on some other task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Scattergram
A graph on which subjects’ scores on two tests are jointly represented as data points (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Schema
The basis for schema theory; a rule, concept, or relationship formed on the basis of experience (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Second-Class Lever
A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through a moment arm longer than that through which the resistive force acts, as when the calf muscles work to raise the body onto the balls of the feet; due to its mechanical advantage (i.e., its long moment arm) the required muscle force is smaller than the resistive force (body weight); a lever in which the resistance force acts between the fulcrum and the effort force (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Second Messenger
Intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical (hormone or neurotransmitter) to a plasma membrane receptor; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger (Marieb, 1998)
Second
Wind
A phenomenon characterized by a sudden transition from an ill-defined feeling of distress or fatigue during the early portion of prolonged exercise to a more comfortable, less stressful feeling later in the exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Secondary
Amenorrhea
The cessation of menstruation in a woman with previously normal menstrual function (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Secondary-Task
Method
A collection of experimental methods whereby learning on a main task can be estimated by use of simultaneous secondary measures of performance (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Segmental
Method
A method of calculating the total body center of mass of a multi-segment body by summing the product of the locations of the centers of mass of the segments and the mass of the respective segment and dividing by the total body mass (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Selective Attention
The ability to inhibit awareness of some stimuli in order to process others; suppression of task-irrelevant cues in order to process the task-relevant cues in the limited attentional space (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Selectively Permeable Membrane
A membrane that allows certain substances to pass while restricting the movement of others; also called differentially permeable membrane (Marieb, 1998)
Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-confidence about a given task in a specific situation; it is the sense of success that an athlete feels he or she embodies or can control; someone of high self-efficacy does not doubt his or her ability to succeed at a given task, even when failure is experienced (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Self-Organization
From dynamic pattern theory; a view that describes motor control as emerging from the interaction of the components of the movement system (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Semilunar Valves
Valves that prevent blood return to the ventricles after contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Semipermeable Membrane
A membrane permeable to some but not all particles or substances (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Sensitivity
That aspect of measurement dealing with the possibility of detecting changes in a dependent measure in relation to varying experimental conditions (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Sensory (Afferent) Nerves
Nerves that contain processes of sensory neurons and carry impulses to the central nervous system (Marieb, 1998)
Sensory Areas
Functional areas of the cerebral cortex that provide for conscious awareness of sensation (Marieb, 1998)
Sensory Receptor
Dendritic end organs, or parts of other cell types, specialized to respond to a stimulus (Marieb, 1998)
Sequencing
An invariant feature of motor programs in which the order of elements is fixed (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Serial
Processing
A style of information processing in which stages of processing are arranged sequentially in time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Serial
Tasks
Movements in which a series of discrete elements are combined, with the order of elements being important (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Series
Elastic Component
(SEC)
Includes the tendon, the cross-bridges, myofilaments, titin filaments and the Z-discs; stores elastic energy when put under tension by the force developed in actively contracted muscle (Siff, 2003)
Serotonin
An excitatory neurotransmitter chemical (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Sesamoid Bones
Short
bones embedded in tendons, variable in size and number, many of which
influence
the action of muscles; largest is the patella (kneecap) (Marieb, 1998)
Set
In an interval training program, a group of work and relief intervals (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Shivering
A rapid, involuntary cycle of contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles that generates heat (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Shock Training
See Plyometrics (Siff, 2003)
Short-Term Memory
A memory store with a capacity of about seven elements, capable of holding moderately abstract information for up to 30 seconds; analogous to consciousness; a “work space” for processing (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Short-Term
Sensory Store
A functionally limitless memory store for holding literal information for about 1 second (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Shtanga Functional Pressure Test
A test used to ascertain if an athlete is overtrained; requires the athlete to breathe in relaxed fashion for a few minutes, then inhaling maximally and holding the breath for 15 to 20 seconds before stopping the nose and exhaling as forcibly as possible for 2 seconds; blood pressure is measured before the test and immediate afterwards and after 2 minutes of relaxed breathing; changes in blood pressure are analyzed (Siff, 2003)
Similarity
A construct in most theories of transfer, indicating the extent to which certain aspects of two tasks are the same (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Simon Effect
A type of stimulus-response compatibility effect in which irrelevant directional or locational information interferes with the action (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Simple Reaction Time
Reaction time from a task in which a single known response is produced when a single stimulus is presented (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Simplification Hypothesis
The idea that the factor structure of a skill becomes progressively simpler with practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Simulator
A training device in which certain features of a task are duplicated, allowing for practice that resembles the transfer task (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Single-Channel Hypothesis
A theory of attention suggesting that the system can process only a single stimulus leading to a response at any given time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Sinoatrial (SA) Node
Specialized myocardial cells in the wall of the right atrium, pacemaker of the heart (Marieb, 1998)
Size Principle
Recruitment of motor units
within muscle on the
basis of the size of their motorneurons;
small ones
recruited first, then intermediate, then large ones (Foss and Keteyian,
1998)
Skeletal Cartilage
Comprises most of the skeleton in early fetal life; articular cartilage, nasal cartilage in the adult skeleton (Marieb, 1998)
Skeletal Muscle
Muscle composed of cylindrical multinucleate cells with obvious striations; the muscles attached to the body’s skeleton; voluntary muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Skeletal System
System of
protection and support composed primarily of bone and cartilage
(Marieb, 1998)
Skills
Movements
that are dependent on practice and experience for their execution, as
opposed
to being genetically defined (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Skinfold Fat Thickness
The most widely applied field technique used to estimate body density, relative body fat, and fat-free mass; it involves measurement with calipers of the skinfold fat at one or more sites (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Sliding Filament Theory
A proposed mechanism for muscle action where shortening and elongation are the result of actin protein filaments sliding inward and outward over myosin protein filaments (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Slope (b)
One of the constants of a linear equation; the inclination of the line (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Slow Component (Of Recovery)
The slow decline in oxygen consumption during recovery (reported in liters) lasting up to 60 minutes or more; follows the initial fast component; formerly lactacid oxygen debt (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Slow Glycolysis
If oxygen is present in sufficient quantities in the mitochondria, the end product of glycolysis (pyruvate) enters the mitochondria and is converted to acetyl CoA prior to entering into the Krebs Cycle (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Slow Twitch (ST) Fiber
A muscle
fiber characterized by slow contraction time, low anaerobic capacity,
and high
aerobic capacity, all making the fiber suited for low-power output
activities;
also known as Type I fiber (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Smooth Muscle
Spindle-shaped cells with one centrally located nucleus and no externally visible striations (bands); found mainly in the walls of hollow organs (Marieb, 1998)
Sodium-Potassium (Na+ - K+) Pump
A primary active transport system that simultaneously drives Na+ out of the cell against a steep gradient and pumps K+ back in (Marieb, 1998)
Solute
The
substance that
is dissolved in a solution (Marieb, 1998)
Solute Pump
Enzyme-like
protein carrier that mediates active transport of solutes such as amino
acids
and ions uphill against their concentration gradients (Marieb, 1998)
Soma
The cell body of a neuron (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Somatic
Pertaining
to the
body (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Somatic Anxiety
Physical symptoms of stress such as tense muscles and tachycardia (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Somatic Nervous System
Division of the peripheral nervous system that provides the motor innervation of skeletal muscles; also called the voluntary nervous system (Marieb, 1998)
Somatic Reflexes
Reflexes that activate skeletal muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Somatomedins
A class of substances produced by the liver and several other tissues as a result of growth hormone influence; composed of amino acid chains; stimulate the growth of muscle and cartilage by turning on phases of protein synthesis (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Somatostatin
A substance produced by the hypothalamus that on release can inhibit the secretion of growth hormone from the adenohypophysis; also called growth hormone release inhibiting hormone (GHRIH) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Somatosensory System
The part of the sensory system dealing with reception in the body wall and limbs, receives inputs from exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and interoceptors (Marieb, 1998)
Somatotype
The body type or physical classification of the human body (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Spacing Effect
In memory experiments, repetitions of the criterion task that are increasingly separated in time are remembered more effectively (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Spatial Anticipation
The anticipation of which stimulus (or the response to it) will occur; also called event anticipation (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Spatial Discrimination
The ability of neurons to identify the site or pattern of stimulation (Marieb, 1998)
Spatial Summation
An increase in responsiveness of a nerve resulting from the additive effect of numerous nearby stimuli (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Spatial-Temporal
Goal
A subgoal for the performer in which a pattern of limb movement defined in terms of both space and time is selected; the major product of running a motor program (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Specific Gravity
The ratio of the density of an object to the density of water (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Specific Heat
The heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Specificity
of
Individual Differences
Henry’s theory of the structure of motor abilities, according to which motor tasks are thought to be composed of many independent abilities (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Specificity
of Learning
The concept that the
similarity of the
environmental conditions and processing in practice, compared to those
in
transfer, has a strong influence on transfer performance (Schmidt
& Lee,
1999)
Specificity
Principle
Principle underlying construction of a training program for a specific activity or skill and the primary energy systems involved during performance (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Speed-Accuracy
Trade Off
The general principle describing a person’s tendency to decrease the accuracy of a movement when the speed of it is increased (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Speed
Strength
A quality where speed development against resistance is vital, but strength acquisition is somewhat less important; synonymous with power (Siff, 2003)
Spinal Cord
The bundle of nervous tissue that runs from the brain to the first to third lumbar vertebrae and provides a conduction pathway to and from the brain (Marieb, 1998)
Spinal Nerves
The 31 nerve pairs that arise from the spinal cord (Marieb, 1998)
Spirometer
A device used to collect, store, and measure either inspired or expired gas volume (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
A training system involving the division of a routine into two distinct components, each of which trains a different body zone in successive workouts (Siff, 2003)
Spongy Bone
Internal layer of skeletal bone; also called cancellous bone (Marieb, 1998)
Sport Psychology
The subdiscipline of exercise science that seeks to understand the influence of behavioral processes on skilled movement; the three major goals of sport psychology are to measure psychological phenomena, investigate the relationships between psychological variables and performance; and to apply theoretical knowledge to improve athletic performance (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Sports Medicine
Umbrella term that refers to
all aspects of sport
and exercise science, especially as used in the
Sprain
Ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretch or torn (Marieb, 1998)
Stability
Resistance to a disturbance in the body’s equilibrium (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Stabilizers
Muscles stabilizing or supporting a body segment statically or dynamically while other muscles carry out a movement involving other joints (Siff, 2003)
Stable
Equilibrium
The state of a body in which the body will return to its original location if it is displaced (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Staggered
Sets
A training routine in which supersets alternate one set for major muscle groups with a set for minor muscles in an attempt to gainfully use the long rest intervals between each set of exercises for the major muscles (Siff, 2003)
Starting Strength
The ability of the muscles to develop force at the beginning of the working contraction before external movement occurs (Siff, 2003)
State Anxiety
A temporary state of worry or concern about a particular situation or activity (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Static Dynamic Methods
A method of developing muscular strength involving the sequential combination in one exercise of isometric and dynamic (auxotonic) muscular activity, each of which can provide its own distinct quantitative characteristics (Siff, 2003)
Static Equilibrium
Sense of head position in space with respect to gravity (Marieb, 1998)
Static Flexibility
The range of motion about a joint; usually measured with a goniometer or flexometer as the arc in degrees at the end when there is no joint motion (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Static
Stabilization
The muscles either contract isometrically or quasi-isometrically to stabilize a body segment during a movement (Siff, 2003)
Static
Stretching
Refers to flexibility exercises which use the weight of the body or its limbs to load the soft tissues; includes free static stretching and passive static stretching (Siff, 2003)
Statics
The branch of mechanics in which the system being studied undergoes no acceleration (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Steady State
Pertaining to the time period during which a physiological function (such as VO2) remains at a constant (steady) state (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Step
Method
A training method where the number of repetitions remains fixed while the load is increased after each set until the prescribed number of repetitions can no longer be maintained (Siff, 2003)
Steroids
Group of chemical substances including certain hormones and cholesterol; they are fat soluble and contain little oxygen (Marieb, 1998)
Stiffness
A characteristic of muscles and springs defined as the change in tension divided by the change in length (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Stimulus
An excitant or irritant; a change in the environment that evokes a response (Marieb, 1998)
Stimulus-Identification Stage
A stage of information processing in which the stimulus is identified, and features or patterns are abstracted; often divided into separate encoding and identification stages (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Stimulus Onset Asynchrony
(SOA)
The interval of time between the onsets of two stimuli, as in the double-stimulation paradigm (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
The degree to which the set of stimuli and associated responses are “naturally” related to each other (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Stimulus-Response Viewpoint
A tradition in psychology and motor behavior stressing the responses produced as a function of stimuli presented, without regard to the intervening mental events or processes (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Storage Problem
A problem with early notions of motor programming in which the number of necessary programs was so large that their storage in the central nervous system seemed impossible (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
STPD
Standard temperature, pressure, dry (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Strength
The maximal force or torque a muscle or muscle group can generate at a specific or determined velocity (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Strength
Deficit
The difference between maximum strength (voluntary effort) produced in a given action and absolute strength (involuntary effort) of which the athlete is capable in that same action (Siff, 2003)
Strength
Endurance
The ability to effectively maintain muscular function under work conditions of long duration (Siff, 2003)
Strength
Speed
A quality in which speed development is vital, but strength is more important; synonymous with power (Siff, 2003)
Stress
Any disruption form homeostasis or mental and physical calm (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Stress Fracture
Microfractures in bone due to structural fatigue (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Stressor
Any stimulus that directly or indirectly causes the hypothalamus to initiate stress reducing responses, such as the fight or flight response (Marieb, 1998)
Stretch
Reflex
Contraction of muscles to
produce movement or
tension due to muscle spindle stretch via a sharp tap on tendon or pull
of
gravity on skeleton (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Stripping
Method
A method of training which involves working progressively with an increasing load and a decreasing number of repetitions in a pyramid fashion until a target load is reached with about 3 to 4 repetitions, where a partner then removes 5 to 10 kg and the athlete exercises to failure, followed by another 5 to 10 kg being removed and athlete once again exercising to failure; used for muscle endurance and definition training (Siff, 2003)
Stroke
Interference with the blood supply to the brain causing necrosis; due to embolus, thrombus, or burst vessel; due to cerebral artery atherosclerosis or aneurysm (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Stroke Volume (SV)
Amount
of blood
pumped out of a ventricle during one contraction (Marieb, 1998)
Structural Exercise
Exercise which involve force vectors through the spine and hip and allowing for greater absolute loads to be used in training (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Structural Interference
Interference among tasks caused by the simultaneous use of the same receptors, effectors, or processing systems (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Structural (Fibrous) Proteins
Consist of extended, strandlike polypeptide chains forming a strong, ropelike structure that is linear, insoluble in water, and very stable; e.g., collagen (Marieb, 1998)
Subjective Reinforcement
A construct in Adams’s closed-loop theory; term used to describe the subject’s self-generated error signal, based on comparing feedback against a reference or correctness (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Submaximal Endurance Capacity
The average absolute power output a person can maintain during affixed period of time on a cycle ergometer, or the average speed or velocity a person can maintain during a fixed period of time (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Submaximal Exercise
All intensities of exercise below maximal exercise intensity (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Substrate
A
reactant on which
an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed (Marieb, 1998)
Successive Approximations
Short-term goals that progressively increase in difficulty (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Succinate Dehydrogenase (SDH)
A key enzyme of the oxidative enzyme intensity (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Sudomotor
Pertaining to activation of the sweat glands (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Summary Knowledge of Results
Augmented
information about a set of performance trials presented after the set
is
completed (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Summation
Accumulation
of effects, especially those of muscular, sensory, or mental stimuli
(Marieb,
1998)
Super Sets
A set that consists of two separate exercises in which the athlete performs set 1 of exercise 1, moves immediately to set 1 of exercise 2, then performs set 2 of exercise 1, set 2 of exercise 2 and so on until the chosen number of sets is completed (Siff, 2003)
Supercompensation
A condition in which the body over-adapts in anticipation of repeated exposure to the same stressor (Siff, 2003)
Superficial
Located
close to or
on the body surface (Marieb, 1998)
Superior Vena Cava
Vein
that returns
blood from body regions superior to the diaphragm (Marieb, 1998)
Supination
The
outward rotation
of the forearm causing palms to face anteriorly (Marieb, 1998)
Supplemental Motor Area (SMA)
Medial
portion of cortical area 6, which is called the sports skills area;
sends axons
to directly innervate distal motor units (Foss and
Keteyian, 1998)
Suppressor T Cells
Regulatory
T
lymphocytes that suppress the immune response (Marieb, 1998)
Supramaximal Methods
Methods of training with loads beyond the maximum amount an athlete can successfully complete intended to increase strength involving forced reps (reps with help from a partner), restricted range reps (smaller range of motion), cheating (use of momentum), and ballistics (dropping a weight rapidly to recruit the stretch reflex) (Siff, 2003)
Surface Drag
A form of
fluid resistance that results from the friction of a fluid passing
along the
surface of an object (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Suture
An immovable fibrous joint; with one exception, all bones of the skull are united by sutures (Marieb, 1998)
Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body to cope with some stressor (danger, excitement, etc); the fight, fright, and flight subdivision (Marieb, 1998)
Sympathetic
Overtraining
Syndrome
A type of overtraining syndrome that includes increased sympathetic activity at rest (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Sympathetic
(Vasomotor)
Tone
State of partial vasoconstriction of the blood vessels maintained by sympathetic fibers (Marieb, 1998)
Symphysis
A joint in which the bones are connected by fibrocartilage (Marieb, 1998)
Synapse
Functional junction or point of close contact between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell (Marieb, 1998)
Synaptic
Cleft
Fluid-filled space at a synapse (Marieb, 1998)
Synaptic
Delay
Time required for an impulse to cross a synapse between two neurons (Marieb, 1998)
Synaptic
Knobs (Boutons)
The bulbous distal endings of the telodendria (Marieb, 1998)
Synaptic
Vesicles
Small membranous sacs containing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Marieb, 1998)
Synarthorsis
Immovable joint (Marieb, 1998)
Synchondrosis
A joint in which the bones are united by hyaline cartilage (Marieb, 1998)
Syndesmosis
A joint in which the bones are united by a ligament or a sheet of fibrous tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Synergist
Muscle that aids the action of a prime mover by effecting the same movement or by stabilizing joints across which the prime mover acts to prevent undesirable movements (neutralizer) (Marieb, 1998)
Synostosis
A completely ossified joint; a fused joint (Marieb, 1998)
Synovial
Fluid
Fluid secreted by the synovial membrane; lubricates joint surfaces and nourishes articular cartilages (Marieb, 1998)
Synovial
Joint
Freely moveable joint exhibiting a joint cavity; also called diarthrosis (Marieb, 1998)
Synthesis
(Combination)
Reaction
A chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones (Marieb, 1998)
Systematic
Desensitization (SD)
A hybrid of cognitive and somatic techniques that allow an athlete to replace a fear response to various cues with a relaxation response; based upon counterconditioning (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Systemic
Pertaining to the whole body (Marieb, 1998)
Systemic
Circuit
System of blood vessels that serves gas exchange in the body tissues (Marieb, 1998)
Systole
Period when either the ventricles or the atria are contracting (Marieb, 1998)
Systolic
Pressure
Pressure exerted by blood on the blood vessel walls during ventricular contractions (Marieb, 1998)
T
Cells
Lymphocytes that mediate cellular immunity; include helper, killer, suppressor, and memory cells; also called T lymphocytes (Marieb, 1998)
T
Tubule (Transverse
Tubule)
Extension of the muscle cell plasma membrane (sarcolemma) that protrudes deeply into the muscle cell (Marieb, 1998)
Tachycardia
A heart rate over 100 beats per minute (Marieb, 1998)
Tapering
The concept of decreasing training duration by 80 to 90% some five days to three weeks before athletic competition, which may or may not be accompanied by an associated increase in training intensity (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Target
Cell
A cell that is capable of responding to a hormone because it bears receptors to which the hormone can bind (Marieb, 1998)
Target
Heart Rate (THR)
A predetermined heart rate to be obtained during exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Task
Analysis
A process of determining the underlying abilities and structure of a task or occupation (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Tau
(t)
A view of time-to-contact information based on the rate of expansion of the approaching object on the retina of the eye (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Taxonomy
A system of classification (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Telodendria
The terminal branches of an axon (Marieb, 1998)
Tempo
Changing Set
A type of training involving the changing of the tempo (or pace) of an exercise during each set, so that either one repetition may be performed faster or slower than other repetitions, or the duration of the concentric, isometric, and eccentric phases of as ingle repetition may be changed relative to one another during each repetition (Siff, 2003)
Temporal
Anticipation
The anticipation of when a given stimulus will arrive or when a movement is to be made (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Temporal
Summation
An increase in responsiveness of a nerve, resulting from the additive effect of frequently occurring stimuli (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Temporal
Variability
The inconsistency of some event with respect to time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Tendon
Cord of dense fibrous tissue attaching muscle to bone (Marieb, 1998)
Tendonitis
Inflammation of tendon sheaths, typically caused by overuse (Marieb, 1998)
Tension
Force applied to a structure that does not move; in muscle, the static or isometric tension developed with the recycling of ATP at cross-bridge sites (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Teratogenic
Effects
Effects that cause abnormal fetal development (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Terminal
Feedback
Feedback given after the movement’s completion (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Testosterone
Male sex hormone produced by the testes; during puberty promotes virilization, and is necessary for normal sperm production (Marieb, 1998)
Tetanus
A smooth, sustained muscle contraction resulting from high-frequency stimulation; an infectious disease caused by an anaerobic bacterium (Marieb, 1998)
Thalamus
Subcortical portion of the brain that, along with the basal ganglia, provides an information loop back to the premotor cortex to assist in the selection and initiation of chosen movements (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Thermal
Stress
Stress imposed on the body by external temperature (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Thermic
Effect of Activity
The energy expended in excess of the resting metabolic rate to accomplish a given task or activity (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Thermic
Effect of a Meal
The energy expended in excess of resting metabolic rate associated with digestion, absorption, transport, metabolism, and storage of ingested food (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Thermodynamics
The science of the transformation of heat and energy (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Thermogenesis
Heat production (Marieb, 1998)
Thermoreceptor
Receptor sensitive to temperature changes (Marieb, 1998)
Third-Class
Lever
A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through a moment arm shorter than that through which the resistive force acts; the mechanical advantage is thus less than 1.0, so the muscle force has to be greater than the resistive force to produce torque equal to that produced by the resistive force; a lever in which the effort force acts between the fulcrum and the line of action of the resistance force (Baechle & Earle, 2000) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Thoracic
Vertebrae
12 vertebrae in the middle to upper back (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Thorax
The portion of the body trunk above the diaphragm and below the neck (Marieb, 1998)
Threshold
Stimulus
Weakest stimulus capable of producing a response in an irritable tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Thrombin
Enzyme that induces clotting by converting fibrinogen to fibrin (Marieb, 1998)
Thrombocyte
Platelets; cell fragments that participate in blood coagulation (Marieb, 1998)
Thrombus
A clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel (Marieb, 1998)
Thyroid
Gland
Endocrine gland active in immune response (Marieb, 1998)
Thyroid
Hormone (TH)
The major hormone secreted by thyroid follicles; stimulates enzymes concerned with glucose oxidation (Marieb, 1998)
Thyroid-Stimulating
Hormone (TSH)
Andenohypophyseal hormone that regulates secretion of thyroid hormones (Marieb, 1998)
Thyrotropin
(TSH)
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland that promotes the release of thyroid hormones (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Thyroxine
(T4)
Iodine-containing hormone secreted by the thyroid gland; accelerates cellular metabolic rate in most body tissues (Marieb, 1998)
Tidal
Volume
Volume of air inspired or expired per breath (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Tight
Junction
Area where plasma membranes of adjacent cells
are
fused (Marieb, 1998)
Time-To-Contact
(Tc)
Information about the time remaining until a moving object arrives at the eye (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Tissue
A group of similar cells and their intercellular substance specialized to perform a specific function; primary tissue types of the body are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue (Marieb, 1998)
Tissue
Perfusion
Blood flow through body tissues or organs (Marieb, 1998)
Titin
A large-molecular weight protein that interconnects the Z-disks to the myosin filaments via the M-bands in myofibrils; responsible for much of the resting tension in highly stretched fibers and plays an important role in located the thick filaments in the center of the sarcomere; helps comprise the series and parallel elastic components of muscle tissue (Siff, 2003)
Tonic
Postural or anti-gravity, referring to muscles that offer stability, aid posture, and resist gravity (Siff, 2003)
Tonicity
A measure of the ability of a solution to cause a change in cell shape or tone by promoting osmotic flows of water (Marieb, 1998)
Torque
The effectiveness of a force to overcome the rotational inertia of an object; the product of force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the axis of rotation (SI unit; Newton-meter); the product of the magnitude of a force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the axis of rotation (Foss and Keteyian, 1998) (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Total
Lung Capacity
(TLC)
Volume of air in the lungs at the end of maximal inspiration (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Total
Peripheral
Resistance
The resistance of the entire systemic circulation (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Total
Variability (E)
The standard deviation of a set of scores about a target value; a measure of overall accuracy (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Trabecula
Any of the fibrous bands extending from the capsule into the interior of an organ; struts or thin plates of bone in spongy bone (Marieb, 1998)
Trabecular
Bone
Spongy bone (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Trace-Decay
Theory
A theory holding that forgetting is caused by the spontaneous “decay” or weakening of memory over time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Trachea
Windpipe; cartilage-reinforced tube extending from the larynx to bronchi (Marieb, 1998)
Tract
A collection of nerve fibers in the CNS having the same origin, termination, and function (Marieb, 1998)
Trainability
Refers to the potential to develop strength in response to a specific training regime and depends largely on genetic factors and pre-training status (Siff, 2003)
Training
An exercise program to develop an individual for a particular event; increasing skill of performance and energy capacities are of equal consideration (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Training
Age
The length of time the child has been resistance training (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Training
Duration
The length of the training program (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Training
Effect
Temporary or extended changes in body structure or function caused by repeated bouts of exercise (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Training
Frequency
The number of times per week for the training workout (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Trait
Anxiety
A personality variable or disposition relating to the probability that one will perceive an environment as threatening; acts as a primer for the athlete to experience (state) anxiety (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Transfer-Appropriate
Processing
The concept that practice should be arranged so that the processing capability learned is appropriate for some goal criterion task or conditions (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Transfer
Design
An experimental design for measuring learning effects, in which all treatment groups are transferred to a common level of the independent variable (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Transverse
(Horizontal) Plane
A plane running from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts (Marieb, 1998)
Triad
The pattern of a T-tubule spaced between and perpendicular to two sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Trials-Delay
Technique
A procedure in which the presentation of knowledge of results for a movement is delayed, during which the learner practices one or more other movements (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Tricuspid
Valve
The right atrioventricular valve
(Marieb, 1998)
Triggered
Reaction
A coordinated response to an environmental stimulus whose latency is shorter than reaction time yet longer than the long-loop reflex (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Triglycerides
Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body’s most concentrated source of energy fuel; also known as neutral fats (Marieb, 1998)
Triiodothyronine
(T3)
Secretion and function similar to those of thyroxine (Marieb, 1998)
Tripeptide
A combination of three amino acids united by means of a peptide bond (Marieb, 1998)
Trophic
Pertaining to nutrition or nourishment (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Tropic
Hormone
A hormone that regulates the function of another endocrine organ (Marieb, 1998)
Tropomyosin
A protein involved in muscular contraction; runs along the length of the actin filament in the groove of the double helix (Baechle & Earle, 2000), (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Troponin
A protein involved in muscular contraction; situated at regular intervals along the actin filament and has a high affinity for calcium ions (Baechle & Earle, 2000), (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Tumor
An abnormal growth of cells; a swelling; cancerous at times (Marieb, 1998)
Twitch
A brief period of contraction followed by relaxation in the response of a motor unit to a stimulus (nerve impulse) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Two-Factor
Model of
Training
A training process involving the superimposition of two-after-effects following the application of a training load: long-term fitness after-effect and short-term fatigue after-effect (Siff, 2003)
Type
I Collagen
The major collagen of bone, tendon, and ligaments consists of this protein (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Type
II Collagen
Collagen present in cartilage (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Type
I Muscle Fiber
Commonly used classification for muscle fibers that display characteristics of slow twitch, nonfatigue, and mostly oxidative metabolism (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Type
IIA Muscle Fiber
Commonly used classification for muscle fibers that display characteristics of fast twitch, medium fatigue, and combined oxidative and glycolytic metabolism (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Type
IIB Muscle Fiber
Commonly used classification for muscle fibers that display characteristics of fast twitch, rapid fatigue, and mostly glycolytic metabolism (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Type
IIC Muscle Fiber
Commonly used classification for muscle fibers that display characteristics of fast twitch but cannot be further classified; predominant early fetal type but very few present after maturity (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Uniaxial
Joint
Joints that allow rotation in only one axis; example is the elbow (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Unit
of Action
A “piece” of behavior that can be utilized repeatedly in various actions, producing essentially the same movements (but scaled to the environment) each time (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Unmyelinated
Fibers
Axons lacking a myelin sheath and therefore conducting impulses quite slowly (Marieb, 1998)
Unsaturated
Fatty Acids
A fatty acid where all the carbon atoms of the chain structure are not filled with hydrogen atoms (i.e., there is double bonding); found mostly in vegetable oils (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Unstable
Equilibrium
The state of a body in which the body continues to increase its displacement if it is displaced (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Upper
Body (Android)
Obesity
Obesity that follows the typically male pattern of fat storage, in which fat is stored primarily in the upper body, particularly in the abdomen (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Up-regulation
Increased target cell formation of receptors in response to increasingly higher levels of the hormones to which they respond (Marieb, 1998)
Validity
That aspect of measurement related to the extent to which a test measures what the experimenter wanted it to measure (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Valsalva
Maneuver
Making an expiratory effort with the glottis closed (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Valvular
Heart Disease
A disease involving one or more of the heart valves (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Variability
in Practice
A prediction of schema theory; transfer is predicted to be facilitated when goals are systematically varied from trial to trail during practice (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Variable
Error (VE)
The standard deviation of a set of scores about the subject’s own average score; a measure of movement consistency (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Variable
Error in Timing
(Vet)
The within-subject standard deviation of the duration of some process or event (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Vascular
Pertaining to blood vessels or richly supplied with blood vessels (Marieb, 1998)
Vascular
Spasm
Immediate response to blood vessel injury; results in constriction (Marieb, 1998)
Vasoconstriction
Narrowing of blood vessels (Marieb, 1998)
Vasodilation
Relaxation of the smooth muscles of the blood vessels producing dilation (Marieb, 1998)
Vasomotion
Intermittent contraction or relaxation of the precapillary sphincter beds resulting in a staggered blood flow when tissue needs are not extreme (Marieb, 1998)
Vasomotor
Center
Brain area concerned with regulation of blood vessel resistance (Marieb, 1998)
Vasomotor
Fibers
Sympathetic nerve fibers that regulate the contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels, thereby regulating blood vessel diameter (Marieb, 1998)
Vegan
People who eat no animal products (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Veins
Blood vessels that return blood toward the heart from the circulation (Marieb, 1998)
Venoconstriction
A decrease in the diameter of a vein (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Venous
Return
Amount of blood returned to the heart via the systemic venous system (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Ventilatory
Breakpoint
The point at which ventilation increases disproportionately compared with oxygen consumption (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Ventilatory
Efficiency
The amount of ventilation required per liter of oxygen consumed (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Ventilatory
Equivalent
The ratio of minute ventilation to oxygen uptake (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Ventral
Pertaining to the front; anterior (Marieb, 1998)
Ventricle
Paired, inferiorly located heart chambers that function as the major blood pumps; cavities in the brain (Marieb, 1998)
Ventricular
Fibrillation
A serious cardiac arrhythmia in which the contraction of the ventricular tissue is uncoordinated, affecting the heart’s ability to pump blood (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Ventricular
Tachycardia
A serious cardiac arrhythmia consisting of three or more consecutive premature ventricular contractions (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Venule
A small vein (Marieb, 1998)
Verbal
Pretraining
The presentation of stimulus or display elements of the task in isolation so that they can be more easily responded to later in whole-task performance (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Vertebral
Column (Spine)
Formed of a number of individual bones called vertebrae and two composite bones (sacrum and coccyx) (Marieb, 1998)
Very
Low Density
Lipoprotein (VLDL)
A lipoprotein carrier of cholesterol (Wilmore & Costill, 2004)
Vesicle
A small, liquid-filled sac or bladder (Marieb, 1998)
Vestibular
Apparatus
The receptors in the inner ear that are sensitive to the orientation of the head with respect to gravity, to rotation of the head, and to balance (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Vibration
Short periods of low-frequency mechanical vibration (10-35 Hz) may induce faster recovery, have a positive effect on different body systems, modulate muscle activity, elicit a higher stable state of strength and power, lower arterial pressure, and enhance oxidative processes; powerful whole-body vibration (26 Hz) through the lower extremities produces increases in jumping power (Siff, 2003)
Visceral
Pertaining to an internal organ of the body or the inner part of a structure (Marieb, 1998)
Visceral
Muscle
Type of smooth muscle; its cells contract as a unit and rhythmically, are electrically coupled by gap junctions, and often exhibit spontaneous action potentials (Marieb, 1998)
Viscosity
State of being sticky or thick (Marieb, 1998)
Visual
Proprioception
Gibson’s concept that vision can serve as a strong basis for perception of the movements and positions of the body in space (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Vital
Capacity (VC)
The volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs by forcible expiration after the deepest inspiration; total exchangeable air (Marieb, 1998)
Vital
Signs
Includes pulse, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and body temperature measurements (Marieb, 1998)
Vitamins
Organic compounds required by the body in minute amounts (Marieb, 1998)
Voluntary
Muscle
Muscle under control of will; skeletal muscle (Marieb, 1998)
Voluntary
Nervous System
The somatic nervous system (Marieb, 1998)
Wallerian
Degeneration
A process of disintegration of an axon that occurs when it is crushed or severed and cannot receive nutrients form the cell body (Marieb, 1998)
Warm-Up
Decrement
The decrement in performance occurring after a rest period (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Water-Soluble
Vitamins
A category of vitamins that are water soluble and consequently are not stored in the body and must be constantly supplied in the diet; examples are vitamin C and B-complex vitamins (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Watt
A unit of power (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Wave
Summation
Increase in force due to an additive effect caused by rapid stimulation of a single motor unit (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
WBGT
(Web Bulb Globe
Temperature) Index
An index calculated from dry bulb, wet bulb, and black bulb temperatures; indicates the combined severity of environmental heat conditions (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Weight
The force exerted by gravity
on an object (SI unit:
Weight
Bearing
Having the additional stress of one’s body weight involved in exercise (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
Wet
Bulb Thermometer
An ordinary thermometer with a wetted wick wrapped around the bulb; the wet bulb’s temperature is related to the amount of moisture in the air; when the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures are equal, the air is completely saturated with water and the relative humidity is 100%
Wet
Muscle
Muscle that has not been desiccated (Baechle & Earle, 2000)
White
Matter
White substance of the central nervous system; myelinated nerve fibers (Marieb, 1998)
Wineglass
Effect
A slip of an object through the fingertips that triggers an increased grip force within 30 milliseconds or so (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
Work
Force expressed through a displacement but with no limitation on time (SI unit: joule) (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Work-Energy
Theorem
The relationship between work and energy stating that the work done is equal to the change in energy (Hamill & Knutzen 2003)
Work
Interval
That portion of an interval-training program consisting of the work effort (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Work-Relief
In an interval-training program, a type of relief interval involving light or mild exercise
such as rapid walking or jogging (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Work-Relief
Ratio
In an interval-training program, a ratio relating the duration of the work interval to the duration of the relief interval (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Yielding
Muscle Action
See Eccentric Muscle Action
Z
Line
A protein band that defines the distance of one sarcomere in the myofibril (Foss and Keteyian, 1998)
Zinovieff
Method
See
Zone
Training
Refers to training a specific body zone in a particular workout session so that an entire body training regime using this method must be spread over several sessions or days; split routines constitute one variation of this method (Siff, 2003)
Zones
of Optimal
Functioning
A modification of the inverted-U principle to include individual, task, and environmental differences (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)
References
Baechle, T. R.,
& Earle, R.W. (2000). Essentials
of Strength and Conditioning (2nd ed.).
Foss, M.
& Keteyian, S. (1998). Physiological Basis for
Exercise and Sport.(6th
ed.).
Hamill, J.
& Knutzen, K.M. (2003). Biomechanical
Basis of Human Movement (2nd ed.).
Marieb, E.
(1998). Human
Anatomy and Physiology(4th
ed.).
Schmidt, R.A.
& Lee, T.D. (1999). Motor
Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis (3rd
ed.).
Siff, M.C.
(2003). Supertraining
(6th ed.).
Wilmore, J.H.
& Costill, D.L. (2004). Physiology
of Sport and Exercise (3rd Ed.)